LiBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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"LETTBKS AID 
LANCTCL 

NUMBERS ON! 



;PYRIGHT *£ 



By J. H. STICKNEY. 






BOSTON 



D APPLETON8C0 



SAM FRANCISCO 



CorniiGHT by L>. APPLETON & CO., 1<S> 



APPLETONS' 

Elementary Reading Charts, 

FORTY-SIX NUMBERS. 
Prepared by PvEBEGCA D. FJCKOFF. 



Price, -with Patent Supporter, complete, $10.00. 



Designed to make learning to read a pleasant pastime. 

Designed to cultivate the observing powers of children. 

Designed to teach the first steps of reading in the right way. 

Designed to train the mind of the child by philosophical 
methods. 

Designed to furnish the primary classes with a variety of 
interesting occupations in school-hours. 

Every step in advance is in a logical ore er of progression 
and development. 

The beautiful and significant illustrations are an especially 
noticeable and attractive feature of these charts. 

Every chart in the series has in view a definite object, which 
is thoroughly and systematically developed. 

Pictures, objects, and things are employed, rather than ab- 
stract rules and naked type. 

They are in accord with the educational spirit of the day, 
and with the methods followed by the best instructors. 

They are the only charts planned with special reference to 
the cultivation of language and the power of expression. 

They follow the natural method of teaching, appealing to 
those faculties of the child that are most easily awakened, and 
inciting correct mental processes at the outset. 

These charts introduce a new and improved mode of sus- 
pension while in use, a feature of much practical value. 

These charts should be in every primary -school room in the 
country. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

Mew York, Boston, Chicago, and San Francisco. 



STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The following treatise is a guide and key to 
other books — the teacher's half of a work not 
here given in full. The constant reference that 
is made to its other half renders it impossible 
that it shall be intelligently read apart from the 
following named series of school text-books by 
the author : 

" Letters and Lessons in Language," 

Numbers One to Four. 

General Explanation of the Series. 

The principle upon which the teaching is 
based is that of showing the powers and beauties 
of language in natural ways as a preparation for 
the later study of language sciences. 

It is our belief that these offices of words can 
be felt and appreciated long before they can be 
grasped under general principles or defined in 
general terms. 

There is a natural interest in names, while 
that in nouns is artificial. To discuss the use of 



2 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

" dainty," "fiery," and "noble," as they describe 
Gamarra, Barry Cornwall's blood-horse, is quite 
another thing from creating an interest in a sen- 
tence for the prudential consideration, immedi- 
ately brought to light, of teaching adjectives. 

These grammatical considerations are entirely 
omitted in this preparatory course. 

A month's time will suffice to teach the 
structural frame-work of the English language 
and prepare pupils for beginning ordinary gram- 
matical analysis, if taken when such study is 
pertinent in a school course. To begin by study- 
ing words only to refer them to one or other of 
the parts of speech, with children of eight or 
nine years of age, and to keep this knowledge 
in constant review for five years that it may then 
serve a useful purpose, has long been condemned 
as lacking both economy and good sense. 

Yet every school series provides a dilution of 
its grammar in an elementary book which teaches 
imperfectly what its successor is supposed to teach 
in full. Finding this elementary book in pupils' 
hands, the teacher endeavors to inspire interest 
in it, and to attain success ; and to do this uses 
language lessons and selections in literature 
chiefly in their grammatical aspect. 

The doctrine of the present book is that a 
diluted grammar is not the best preparation for 
subsequent grammatical knowledge. 

A natural study of the language forms of 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

selected readings, in which ulterior ends are kept 
out of sight, yet in which each exercise is the 
stepping-stone to a higher, will bring school- 
children at twelve or thirteen years of age to the 
place where they will grasp at once the necessary 
technical forms for explaining language construc- 
tions, and begin to appreciate the rules and prin- 
ciples which regulate English usage. This time 
can not be hastened. To appear to anticipate it 
by teaching definitions to children at eight or 
ten is manifestly a mistake, since it robs them of 
opportunities for better culture. 

This is in brief the object of the present 
work. The author realizes fully the extent to 
which it is an innovation, and asks all who be- 
lieve in its principle, to give it the cordial help 
that every book, and especially every new book, 
needs at the hands of those who teach it. 

If pupils, while pursuing its studies, fail 
somewhat in the glibness which often attends 
entirely thoughtless and meaningless recitation, 
it may be at some personal cost that the teacher 
insists that the work is the more healthful and 
profitable for this very lack. 

The sections into which this manual is divided 
correspond with the successive lessons in the 
three divisions of the pupil's books, giving equal 
place to Invention — the language of thought — 
Conversation upon the offices of words and the 
construction of standard products in Literature. 



BOOK I 



SECTION I. 



Invention. — The Beginning of a Story. 

Word Study. — Letter One. Ways of Naming. 

Literature. — The Belfry Pigeon. 

The difficulties of new work are chiefly 
at the beginning. A thread of method found, 
it is soon easy to follow it. The manual will 
therefore develop 'at some length the earlier les- 
sons, thus suggesting models for those not so 
fully wrought out. 

The first pages of Letters and Lessons are left 
blank for the pupil's use in recording a story in 
six successive chapters. This is believed to be 
the most elementary exercise in continuous com- 
position. 

The oral teaching which follows, though 
somewhat abridged in form, will set the class 
afloat on the sea of this new enterprise, the 
winds and currents of which it will then be 
safe to trust for successful progress. 



STUDIES IN STORY- WHITING. 5 

A Story. 

[Letters and Lessons, Book I, page 1.] 

An Oeal Lesson. Teacher. The lower half of the 
cover-page of your book [Letters and Lessons, Book IJ 
contains its table of contents. Notice what is given as 
the work of Part One. 

Pupil. Invention. A Story of Country Life. 

T. To what page of the book does it refer you? 

P. Page one. 

T. Turn to it, and tell me what you find. 

P. A picture. 

T. Is the picture the first thing on the page? 

P. No. Part First is at the head of the page. 

T. That is the heading for this part or division of the 
book. What follows it? 

P. " A Story of Country Life." 

T. What is that? 

P. The story-heading or title. 

T. What is contained in the brackets? 

P. " See third page of cover." 

7. Turn to it, and tell me what it contains. 

P. A letter to explain the story. 

T. Turn back to page one. 

T. And what comes next? 

P. The word "By." 

T. Who can tell me what that means? John may. 

P. There is space below for a name. 

T. Whose name? 

P. In my book it would be my own name. 

T. What would the name indicate? 

P. That the story is written by the person named. 

T. In what sense do you use the word " written "? 

P. It means composed* 

T. Yes, composed means put together; invented would 



6 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

be a more exact word, and in the table of contents this 
part of your work is called invention. What is the use of 
the picture? 

P. To illustrate the story. 

T. Explain the line below it. 

P. The gentleman is saying it to the boy in the car. 

T. What part of the story does the picture represent? 

P. Leaving home. Saying " Good-by." Beginning 
the journey. 

T. For to-morrow's lesson you may read the letter on 
the cover-page, examine the picture, and invent the story 
as far as the picture carries it. 

Second Oral Lesson. THE PICTUEE AND LET. 
TER. 

Teacher. What is the subject of the picture ? 

Pupils. A Leave-taking. Going on a Journey. Scene 
in a Railroad Depot. Saying " Good-by," etc. 

T. Who are the persons? What other leave-taking 
preceded this? Where did it take place? Between what 
parties? What transpired between? 

T. Where are these children going? For what pur- 
pose? For how long a time? 

At what time of day will you suppose them to begin 
the journey? What is the length of the journey, and 
what time will it require ? Will you admit of any delays? 
At what time will the children reach their destination? 

What do you observe about the gentleman, and what 
account can you draw from the picture? 

On which car of the train and in which seats of the 
car are the children seated? What baggage may they be 
supposed to have taken ? 

Go back now to the beginning of the matter, and settle 
the following points: Who proposed the visit? What led 
to the suggestion? Who seconded it, and in what words 



STUDIES m STORY- WRITING. 7 

and ways? What objections and difficulties may have had 
to be overruled and obviated ? Tell all this in the words 
in which it is supposed to have been expressed. 

What preparations were needful, and what persons en- 
gaged in them? What time must have elapsed before 
arrangements were completed for the safety of the going? 
What acts and anticipations filled the minds and time of 
Charles and Helen? 

Picture the final act of leaving home, and the getting 
to the railroad station. 

A lively imagination will find no difficulty in 
throwing an air of reality about this scene, and 
supplying the minor details. 

Perhaps a fine autumn morning woke in the mother's 
mind the remembrance of the delights of her childhood 
in the clear October days, and called forth the expression 
of it at the family breakfast-table. Perhaps some out- 
burst from Charles or Helen gave the impetus. Possibly 
a letter from one of the Baxter family brought the invita- 
tion, or it may be that the need of a new school building 
threw unexpected time on the hands of the children, and 
so an unusual opportunity. 

Among these and other hypotheses the class must 
choose one, and, adopting it, make the form of the story 
correspond. 

Map out the story in. class with the degree of 
detail which tin grade and attainment of the 
pupils are found to demand. Remove the diffi- 
culties to the extent of putting every child at 
ease about undertaking the work, and do not al- 
low the impression to be taken that the kind of 
work is in any sense exceptional. 



8 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Kequire the result to be written upon slates 
or practice paper, and call for the reading of as 
many papers as the time may allow. Give pref- 
erence to the average talent of the class, and as- 
sume for the unread papers what has been found 
to be true, both in excellences and defects, of 
those that are read. Offer criticism and sugges- 
tion as each exercise is read, and make occasion 
to teach anything of value that the exigency may 
allow or suggest. 

If the exercise has been written fairly, give 
the pupils the encouragement of knowing that 
you are satisfied. Give pupils time to correct 
errors and revise work, then file the papers. 

Third Oral Lesson. THE JOURNEY. 

The incidents of the journey, the meeting at the end of 
the route, the ride in the carriage, the arrival at the farm, 
and the experiences until bed-time, may be developed as 
a part of the first chapter of the continued story. 

Ways of Naming-. 

[See pages 19 and 20, Book I. Letters and Lessons.] 

ORAL LESSONS TO FOLLOW THE READING OF THE CORRE- 
SPONDING LETTER IN THE PUPiL^ BOOK. 

What is a name ? It is a word by which a 
person or thing is called or known. 

As applied to persons, it answers the questions, 
" Who is he ? " and " What is he ? " 

A person may have many names, yet there is 
but a single answer to the question, " What is his 



THE STUDY OF NAMES. 9 

name ? " This is his personal or individual name. 
It is recorded in the register of the town or city 
in which he lives, and is the usual means of 
identifying him. 

Other names are general ; that is, they are not 
the special property of any single person to the 
exclusion of others. 

Individual names have no meaning in them- 
selves. They stand as the word-representation 
of the individuals to whom they belong. If 
they could mean anything they might often 
grow to be inappropriate to the persons bearing 
them. Refer to our use of such names as Faith, 
Patience, Smith, Baker, and explain that the 
words lose their real meaning when applied to 
persons. 

General names have in most cases a meaning 
that can be clearly defined and illustrated. 

Examples : Who is he ? He is Frederic Baker, the 
son of Dr. Baker. 

What is he ? He is the organist at St. Paul's Church, 
and a teacher of music. I am told he is also a fine 
singer. 

Ask and answer similar questions in a variety of ways 
in case of both real and imaginary persons. 

What is your name ? George Henry Emerson. Who 
or what are you ? I am the janitor of this building. 
What are you besides ? I am a blacksmith by trade. I 
am an Englishman, a freemason, a republican, a church- 
man, and a citizen. 

Count the names this person takes to himself. 



10 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

RELATIONSHIPS GIVE NAMES TO PEOPLE. 

One may be a son, brother, father, uncle, cousin, and 
nephew ; or daughter, sister, mother, aunt, and niece to 
different persons, and so be called by all these names. 

Or one may stand in the relation to another of friend, 
adviser, companion, comrade, or foe. The laborer is put 
into relation to an employer ; the servant to a master or 
mistress. A pastor, priest, or deacon holds a relation to 
a church, a leader to a band, a foreman to a class of 
workmen. In a meeting of citizens one is named presi- 
dent, another secretary, etc. 

A city names one man a mayor, others aldermen, 
etc. 

While under a physician's care one is called a patient. 
"When employing a lawyer one is a client. To the mer- 
chant with whom he deals one is a patron. Persons liv- 
ing in the same section of a town call each other neigh- 
bors ; others are acquaintances or strangers. 

All these are ways of naming. 

NAMES EXPRESS TRAITS OF ' CHARACTER. 

A little child in a family answers to the names, sun- 
beam, fairy, bird, flower, and also to mischief, rogue, 
tease. 

An idle person going from place to place begging 
is called a vagabond or tramp. There are names for 
those who serve their country and for those who betray 
it. 

No person can habitually tell falsehoods, commit theft 
or any other crime without acquiring a name appropriate 
to his character. 

Dickens, in his " Child's History of England," gives 
the nicknames of the different kings, showing personal 
peculiarities or traits. Names of animals are often given 
to persons to express some ruling tendency. 



THE STUDY OF NAMES. 11 

Care must be taken to distinguish between names, or 
words by which persons may be called, and epithets, 
words which only describe. We may say that a person 
is cunning-, or we may call him a fox. We describe a per- 
son by saying he is wise, and call him a scholar. Neither 
"wise" nor "cunning" is a name. A convenient test 
for a word, to tell if it is a name, is the use of a or aist 
before it. We can say, " He is a patriot," or "he is patri- 
otic," but not " a patriotic " unless we add a name, as, for 
example, citizen, or soldier. 

NAMES DENOTE OCCUPATION. 

Trades and professions give names by which persons 
following them are called or known. 

From carpentry, the art of cutting and joining tim- 
ber to frame and finish buildings, we have the words 
carpenter and joiner, to name the people practicing 
it. Smith names a man who works upon metals and 
helps to form the names blacksmith, silversmith, gold- 
smith, etc. It will be easy and useful to compass the 
usual trades and w T rite the list of names as a spelling 
lesson. 

To be trusted in the practice of medicine a person 
must have acquired special knowledge and passed exami- 
nation in it, for which he received a degree and the right 
to be called doctor. Many of the higher kinds of learning 
give distinctive names. 

Rank in office and membership in societies give titles, 
which are either attached to the personal name or used in 
place of it. 

Classify the following names as directed under num- 
bers 1, 2, 3, 4, on page 20 : 

Servant, companion, master, overseer, gardener, stu- 
dent, pianist, inventor, chemist, Jew, Christian, Spaniard, 
sovereign, coward, wife, benefactor, tyrant, duke, prince, 
lion, boor, fop, villain, miser, spendthrift, caretaker, spy, 



12 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

peasant, Protestant, daughter, ancestor, relative, towns- 
man, odd fellow, colonel, private, chum, wheelwright, 
clerk, pioneer, philosopher, forger, grandson. 

Explain the names in the following selected lines? 

" I'm to be queen of the May, mother ; I'm to be queen of the 
May." 

" Do you think, blue-eyed banditti ! 
Because you have scaled the wall, 
Such an old mustache as I am 
Is not more than a match for you all ? " 

"Gamarra is a dainty steed." (See page 40 of L. and L.) 

" Green little vaulter in the sunny grass, 
And you warm little housekeeper 
Who class with those who think the 
Candles come too soon." 

" Go ye, and tell that fox, Herod, Behold, I do cures to-day 
and to-morrow, and the third day I shall be perfected." 

" Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be 
wise." 

" Charles is the drone of the hive, the black sheep of the 
flock." 

He is my kinsman. The pastor called to-day. 

Miller. I believe I hear the rogue. Who's there ? 

King. No rogue, I assure you. 

Miller. Little better, friend, I believe. 

Pray, who are you ? What's your name ? 

King. What authority have you ? 

Miller. Sir, I am John Cockle, the miller of Mansfield, one of 
His Majesty's keepers, and I will let no suspicious fellow pass 
this way, etc. 

Alexander. What, art thou that Thracian robber of whose 
exploits I have heard so much ? 

Chief. I am a Thracian, and a soldier. 

A lex. A soldier ! a thief, a plunderer, an assassin ! the pest 
of the country ! 



THE STUDY OF NAMES. 13 

CHRISTIAN NAMES AND SURNAMES. 

Most personal names have two parts — the 
first, from being publicly given in the ceremony 
of baptism in the' Christian Church, is called the 
Christian name ; the second or last is the surname. 
It is generally the name of the family to which 
one belongs. 

There was a time when a single name was sufficient, 
but the trouble of inventing original names led to the cus- 
tom of repeating the same name until it had become too 
common to distinguish its possessor. As an example of this, 
let any person count the Johns of his acquaintance. This 
occasioned the necessity for added names, and finally for 
the fixed surname. 

The latter often arose from some circumstance in a 
person's life. John of the Adams family became John 
Adams. Jacob, the tailor, named himself Jacob Taylor, 
and added the same surname to the names of all his 
children. Robert, the miller, became the head of a 
numerous posterity bearing the name Miller, though 
none of his name should adopt his calling. Fitz, mean- 
ing son, and O', grandson, headed long lines of names, 
such as Fitzhugh, Fitzpatrick, Fitzgerald, O'Brien, O'Con- 
nell, O'Neal. Allen, of the hill, became Allen Hill, 
and he of the dale Allen Dale. Walter, son of Dennis, 
wrote himself Walter Dennison, and his son Dennis 
perhaps became Dennis Walterson. In process of time 
surnames became fixed. 

NAMES FOR ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 

Words to designate animals, except in the 
case of pets and such as come into personal con- 
nection with people, are general. 



14 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

A particular horse may have an individual name, 
known to his owner and a small circle of his owner's 
friends, but the nameAorse belongs to the class of animals 
of which a Gamarra or a Koland is one member. Any 
single animal might be so distinguished ; and the more 
intelligence an animal displayed, the more like a human 
being it appeared, the more interest there would be in 
giving it a special name. Persons who are fond of pets 
treat them as if they were almost human, and teach them 
to answer to an individual name. Pupils in a class can 
furnish examples to illustrate this kind of naming, but 
must not forget that but a very insignificant part of the 
animal creation rise to such a dignity. 

The names of plants and animals, especially of unfa- 
miliar ones, often have the appearance of being individual. 
This comes from the fact that names of the persons who 
bring them first to notice are given to them with slight al- 
teration. 

The question to ask over a name, to test its kind, is this : 
u Does it belong to this one thing, or to this and others 
like it ? " 

NAMES OF THINGS AND PLACES. 

In the same way that a pet bird may bear an 
individual name, anything may that the person 
owning or using it chooses to treat like a com- 
panion or friend, or to consider as a single thing 
having a particular interest. 

Thus a kite, a boat, a ship, an engine, or any toy or 
machine may have its individual name as well as its general 
or real one. The heavenly bodies were at one time be- 
lieved to be either the substance or the expression of the 
gods, and each had its particular name. The study of 
astronomy could not well be carried on without these in- 
dividual names. 



THE STUDY OF NAMES. 15 

Continents, states, cities, towns, rivers, lakes, 
gulfs, bays, oceans, seas, mountains, great plains 
and valleys, and all other striking features of the 
earth's surface as it is known by man, need and 
have distinct individual names by which they are 
called and known. 

There are hundreds of cities and but one Chicago, hun- 
dreds of waterfalls and but one Niagara. It is this that 
gives the individual name its value as a means of desig- 
nating a particular person, place, or thing. 

The general name, by grouping things in 
classes, according to their resemblances, comes 
to have a definite meaning. The study of 
the marks, by which things are thus classified 
under a single word, follows in a subsequent 
lesson. 

The teacher will readily see that the question 
over a great many names — " Is this name gen- 
eral ? " or is it " individual ? " — extends and clears 
the conception of names, and so precludes the ne- 
cessity of continuing the question — " Is this a 
name \ " after it has become tiresome. 

One other question has also this cumulative 
value ; it is this : " Under what general name is 
this individual one comprised ? " 

Answers : " John Andrew is included under 
the general name man." 

The name " Ohio " belongs to the class name 
" State." 



16 STUDIES AV LANGUAGE. 

A Study in Poetry. The Belfry Pigeon- 
By N. P. Willis. 

HELPS TO ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

Three special points enter into tins exercise, 
as treated in the children's book, page 37. 

1. A study of the meaning and office of 
words. 

2. The arrangement of rhyming and rhythmic 
lines. 

3. Change of diction involved in telling the 
story in other words. 

New subjects are, as a rule, treated to best 
advantage by taking but a little at a time. No 
one selection in poetry should be made to carry 
the burden of an exhaustive treatment. There 
are words in even simple reading whose meaning 
the children may not be safely challenged to in- 
terpret. The teacher shows wisdom in avoiding 
such, knowing that the sentence may be compre- 
hended in spite of an obscure word. 

In the present lesson neither thoughts nor 
words are above the easy grasp of children of 
nine or ten years. 

Two forms of questioning under slightly 
varied expression cover the first of the above- 
named points, as in the following cases : 

1. Where was the nest built? On the cross-beara. 

2. What is told by " on the cross-beam " ? Where the 
nest was built. 



A STUDY IN POETRY. 17 

1. To what kind of bird did the nest belong? A 
pigeon. 

2. What is told by " of a pigeon " ? The kind of bird 
that built the nest. 

1. How was the nest built? g 

2. What is the word " well " used to express ? 

At the first questioning use form number 
one ; and at a later one, number two. To use 
both together gives an uncomfortable appearance 
of cross-questioning. 

Do not force a meaning beyond its place in 
the poem. " With the morning air " is of little 
value, except for filling the line, a necessity laid 
upon the post as distinct from the story-teller. 
Let the pupils observe this, and try to meet the 
difficulty in some other way. 

Find place for question or explanation upon 
the following points : 

What longer expression does "there" recall? 

The word "track" means (1) the course taken by any 
moving thing, and (2) the mark left by such a course. 
Which is it in this case ? 

" Wary " is a good word, which is not yet in the 
natural vocabulary of the pupils. The old form is " ware," 
and means cautious, vigilant, watchful against danger, as 
in beware and aware. It is a picture-word describing 
the bird as it comes down to the street for the grains 
dropped by passing teams. 

By what expressions is the fact of a clock on this 
church-spire indicated ? 

A little license is taken in the use of "chime" for 
clock-striking, which resembles the real chime only in 



18 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

requiring a number of strokes to carry a single mean- 
ing. 

What meaning is gathered into the words " whatever " 
as used in the poem ? 

Quote the following lines, omitted in the children's 
books for lack of space : 

" When the tongue swings out to the midnight moon ; 
When the sexton cheerily rings for noon ; 
When the clock strikes clear at morning light ; 
When the child is waked with nine at night ; 
When the chimes play soft in the Sabbath air, 
Filling the spirit with tones of prayer ; 
Whatever" etc. 

It is sufficient for a first lesson in metrical 
composition to note the rhymes, the even length 
of lines, and the use of capital letters. In story 
poems, with the exception of a few humorous 
ballads, .the musical rhythm takes a subordinate 
place. 

The writing of the story in other words may 
wait till subsequent lessons have helped to give 
a larger freedom in expression ; but the questions 
of the teacher may without difficulty lay the 
foundation for such an exercise. 

What did the pigeon do? 

Was the nest a home for all the year? 

Who observed its life and told its story ? 

What feelings did its ways awaken in the poet? 



SECTION II. 

Invention. — Chapter Two of the Story Chisholm. 
Wokd Study. — Letters Two and Three. Picture Words. 
Litekature — Perseverance. The Fly. 

The Story. Chisholm. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 4.] 

Life in the country anywhere will serve as 
the basis for the description of the experiences 
of Charles and Helen. Some pupils in every 
school-room have had similar experiences, and a 
little questioning by the teacher will bring them 
to remembrance. 

1. The old-fashioned country house may be 
described with its homespun carpets, and furni- 
ture a generation old. Go with the children to 
the great attic, where still more ancient days 
may be recalled ; to the barns, filled in October, 
so that children can climb to the highest beams ; 
the tool-house, where every branch of industry is 
rudely carried on to meet the needs of farm life, 
and where it is to be supposed the little boat is 
made that we see pictured on page 16. 

The chapter closes with an exercise in letter- 



20 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

writing. Insist that your pupils represent Master 
Charlie as a real boy, who writes because he has 
something to say beside the dead forms of con- 
ventional letter-writing. 

Study in Poetry. Perseverance. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 38.] 

EXAMPLES OF EEOITATION. 

" A swallow,'" tells the name of the bird. 

" In the spring," tells the time. 

" Came," tells what the bird first did. 

" Essayed," tells what she did afterward. 

" To our granary," names the place. 

" 'Neath the eaves," fixes the place more ex- 
actly. 

" To make a nest," tells why she came and 
what she tried to do. 

Go on thus to the end of the poem. 

2. Explain the two uses of the word " foot " 
as a standard of measure. It is not safe to 
measure poetry by counting syllables, though it 
holds in this case. The measure is from one ac- 
cent to another, taking in the unaccented or 
slightly accented syllables between. The ear 
determines it. 

3. Story in other words. Examples of result : 
A remarkable instance of the perseverance of birds 
was shewn in the spring by a swallow that attempted to 
build a nest under the eaves of a corn-barn on our farm. 
With leaves and straw for a frame-work, and mud for 



THE STUDY OF WORDS. 21 

plaster, she patiently worked for days to make herself a 
home ; but the structure was delicate, and in some way it 
was broken and thrown down before she had finished it. 
She was not discouraged by the misfortune, but with the 
help of her mate gathered new materials and rebuilt the 
nest. 

The work was nearly done, only lacking a few more 
feathers for lining its broad floor, when, either by accident 
or cruel design, it was again utterly ruined. 

Still she did not lose heart. The third effort was 
made, and now she is rewarded by a safe home, and by 
three tiny birdlings, whose calls I heard last night. 

The efforts of pupils may not result in a 
perfectly smooth style of story. It is not to be 
expected at the outset. Read to them every 
creditable attempt that is made; and count 
each good item as a valuable step. Gather from 
the aggregate stories the best expressions, unite 
them into a whole, and let it be copied into the 
books. 

The lesson upon the Fly on the opposite page 
of the pupil's books is an easier study of similar 
kind. Give it to the class without explanation, 
and let them do what they can upon it. 

The Study of Words. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 23.] 

PIOTUEE MEANING. 

This letter (Number Two of Letters and Les- 
sons) introduces an unpretentious study of the 
so-called Presentative Elements of Language. 



22 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

In natural, fragmentary way, pupils will bring 
to expression the various ideas for which a 
word is the sign. By doing so in class-recita- 
tion, the thoughts of each become the common 
wealth. 

The word of this lesson is not simply the name 
of a thing or person, but the sign of an idea. 

It is not essential to our purpose that the ele- 
ments of a conception shall be either accurate or 
full. For example, the language study of the 
word " stars " may differ from the astronomical. 
Fanciful notions may be entertained and ex- 
pressed, and the teacher neither affirm nor reject 
them. In general, however, whatever is touched 
should be brightened and cleared of false color- 
ing. 

A study of the word " stars " will illustrate 
the unfinished character which may consist with 
a profitable language-exercise at this stage of 
school progress. 

EXAMPLE OF OEAL INSTBUOTION. THE STAE8. 

Teacher. Who will give me some person's idea of the 
stars — either a true or a false ? 

P. They are lamps or lights in the sky. 

T. When are they lighted and when put out ? 

P. They are lighted at evening, and they go out when 
the morning comes. 

P. They rise and set like the sun. 

P. They are not lighted and put out. They shine all 
the time, only we do not see them. 

T. During the day when we do not see them, are the 



THE STUDY OF WORDS. 23 

same stars shining for the other half of the world, and is 
the sky that we see an empty one ? 

P. If the sun were covered, we should see stars in 
the daytime ; would they be the same ones we see at 
night ? 

T. That is a good question, but I am not telling you 
about stars to-day — you are telling me. What do you 
think ? Can you tell the names of any stars ? 

P. The Pleiades, the Dipper, Venus, Jupiter, Mars. 

T. Are all these stars of the same kind ? 

P. No. Some are planets like our earth, and some are 
like the sun. The Pleiades and the Dipper are groups of 
stars. 

T. What different ideas do you think people have of 
the distance of the stars ? 

P. They are beyond the clouds. 

P. They are millions of miles away. 

T. What of the distance from each other ? 

P. Some of them are very near together, as, for ex- 
ample, the Pleiades. 

P. They only appear so because they are so far from 
us. They are really very far apart even when they seem 
nearest together. 

T. Of what use are they to the people of the earth ? 

P. They give light when the sun does not shine. 

T. Can you quote any lines about them ? 

T. The Bible account of the creation tells us that they 
are for signs and for seasons, for days and for years — that 
God set them in the firmament to rule over the day and 
over the night. Gen. i, 17, 18. What does it mean by 
ruling ? 

P. I should think it meant that the day lasted while 
the sun was in sight, and that the stars rising and setting 
told the time of night. 



24 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

T. They were the first clocks then. Is not that one 
thought of them ? 

T. The year of the planet Mercury is only a quarter of 
our year, and that of Saturn is nearly thirty of ours ; do 
either the sun or the stars rule that for them, do you think ? 

Let this and other conversation go on until 
the special lines of conception have been touched. 
Correct any really false impressions as far as may 
be possible. When the opportunity offers, read 
to the class from " On the Leads," " Other 
Worlds than Ours," and other excellent books, 
as a means of instruction apart from language 
training ; but, when a sufficiently full conception 
of the meaning of the word for the present 
need has been reached, turn the attention back 
upon the purpose for which the conversations 
have been conducted, namely, to show that the 
word " star " is the name and sign for all that 
stars mean, or ever will mean, as more is known 
of them. Summarize this meaning for their 
better' grasp. 

To some, they are only lights to relieve the 
darkness of the night. 

To some, they are like the face of a clock, 
telling time of day and time of year — a guide 
in traveling by land or sea. 

To some, they are an expression of the glory 
of the great universe of worlds, and their courses 
are a proof of the greatness and love of God. 

The astrologers tell fortunes by means of 



TEE STUDY OF WORDS. 25 

them, and watch them to tell beforehand what is 
to be their luck in various enterprises. 

Study city in a similar way, and prepare 
the statements for the lesson upon u The Woods " 
on the following page. 

These lessons, as has been remarked, are not 
designed for finished statements in connected 
form. They take the place in language-study 
that artists' sketches do in drawing and painting. 

Examples: The artist's idea of a tree gives promi- 
nence to its form, its mode of branching, the appearance 
of its foliage, the effect of light and shade upon it. 

The botanist's to its mode of growth. He compares it 
with other trees and plants, and finds a class which can 
include it. 

The forester or woodman looks at a tree for its timber, 
which he values in amount and quality. 

Others value it for shade, for beauty, or for fruit. 

The word tree is its sign to all. 

One person thinks of friendship simply as the liking 
people may have, one for another. 

To others it means, in addition, a willingness to bear 
hardships, or practice self-denial in order to serve. 

And it may come to mean that friendship implies 
readiness to cause pain, to be misunderstood and to suffer 
that another may be benefited. 

These are degrees in the strength or meaning of the 
word. 



SECTION III. 

Invention. — Chapter Three. Bow the Days %>assed. 
Conveksation. — Class Names. Picture Phrases. 
Liteeatuee. — The Skylark. 

The Story. How the Days Passed. 

Take into the story- telling now a little of 
the animal and plant life, which are the dis- 
tinguishing characteristics of a country farm. 
The horses, two for farm work and one for 
family use, cows, pigs, sheep, hens and chick- 
ens ; the harvesting of grain and fruit, the husk- 
ing, nutting, and apple-paring parties, are but 
examples of what the children have to draw 
upon. The lengthening autumn evenings, the 
frosty nights, and rains filling the streams, are 
occasions for making each day new in interest 
and incident. A few things plainly pictured 
have more power than the simple enumeration 
of a great many, into which pupils fall if left to 
themselves. 

A considerable amount of oral recitation of 
incidents supposed to be real in the case of the 
children of the story will greatly improve the 
final result. 



GLASS NAMES. 27 

GENERAL TEEMS OK CLASS NAMES. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 24.] 

It belongs to the teaching in this connection 
to show that, while a name has a clear, fixed 
meaning, it may stand for things very unlike. 

The study of the word " carriage " [Letter 
Three] introduces the idea of general and spe- 
cific terms, that is, of higher and lower classes. 

If asked, " What is a phaeton ? " the pupil 
answers, " A kind of carriage " ; and the same 
answer may be repeated over barouche, brougham, 
brett, coupe, coach, carryall, or the rudest car or 
cart. The questions, however, lead the mind to 
appreciate that the answer, in each case, refers 
the thing to a higher class, but tells none of its 
distinguishing marks. 

Twenty examples are not too many to fasten 
this truth in the mind. 

Kindness, justice, benevolence, and honesty, belong to 
the class virtues. 

Star, planet, moon, sun, to the class heavenly bodies. 

Define the following things by referring 
each to its class : 

1 Builder, 2 cooper, 3 blacksmith, 4 thrush, 6 terrier, 
* potato, 7 corn, 8 silver, 9 bread, 10 cap. 

The illustration of the truth by diagrams 
may be found to be helpful. It will certainly 
be interesting. 



28 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Let a circle represent whatever is named by the word 
buggy ; another, the word wagon ; and others, each sepa- 
rate kind of carriage named by the pupils. The aggre- 
gate of the circles must then illustrate the higher class 
"carriage"; and a single large circle may gather the 
smaller ones within its circumference, thus: 




If asked, " What is a carriage f " the answer 
pushes the mind still further from distinguishing 
marks belonging to any single kind by referring 
the thing to a still higher class. " A carriage is 
a vehicle" which higher term includes, in addi- 
tion to all carriages, the sled, boat, balloon — 
" anything that carries." 

Recitation upon this subject takes such forms 
as the following : 

1. The word instrument names a large class of differ- 
ent things. Knife names a smaller class within the larger, 
and penknife a class smaller still, within the class knife. 
The relation of the terms may be represented thus: Cir- 
cle one, the large class instruments, contains space for 
many classes besides knife ; and circle two, other kinds of 



CLASS NAMES. 



29 



knife than the penknife, which is represented by circle 
three. 




2. The word photograph names a particular kind of 
picture. The class " picture " is larger than the class 
u photograph," since it includes, besides photographs, 
paintings, engravings, chromos, drawings, etc., as per 
diagram. 




3. The word sled names a class within the class 
vehicle. It has all the picture-meaning of vehicle, and 
its own particular marks or points besides ; but it names 
a very small class, while vehicle names a large one. 



30 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

4t. An apple is a fruit, but not every fruit is an apple. 
A pippin and a russet are apples, but not all of the 
apples. 

Compare the terms handle and knob, metal and tin, 
ornament and bracelet, clothing aud coat. 

Picture Phrases or Distinguishing Marks. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 25.] 

The work of Letter Four shows the. action of 
words upon each other. It leads to the later 
study of modifiers in grammar ; and the dis- 
crimination of the extent and content of terms 
which is the foundation of logical reasoning. 
It is the opposite of the process by which class- 
names arise. Beginning with a general but 
vague term, it brightens the picture meaning, 
shutting out all of a large class excejrt itself, by 
adding words that are its distinct peculiarities. 

Examjrte : The word sky as standing for the expanse 
above our heads is vague; " blue sky " is a more distinct 
mental picture ; " deep-blue sky " calls for a clearer pict- 
uring; and u a patch of deep-blue sky in the midst of 
white clouds " is a particular definite thing that the mind 
can see. That which is added to " sky " to make this 
picture excludes all other kinds of sky, as the use of russet 
or pippin excluded the other kinds of apple. The same 
result is reached in both cases, though by an opposite 
process. 

The vague general term loses in extent, as can 
be shown by diagram. It gains in picture-power 
or content. 



DISTINGUISHING MARKS. 31 

It will often happen that no single word can 
be found for a class within a class, or for a par- 
ticular thing. 

Under furniture, we may wish to name the 
kind that is used in a home as distinct from that 
of an office, a railroad station, or a parlor-car. 
Having no single word, we add " household " to 
furniture, and are clearly understood. The word 
"household" limits the wideness of meaning in 
furniture. Try the effect of adding such words 
as kitchen, chamber, parlor, library, dining-room 
— and draw diagrams to represent the relative 
extent of meaning. 

In another line of modifying, try the terms 
faded, fresh, worn, old-fashioned, modern, etc. ; 
and in still another, cheap, costly or expensive, 
well-made, durable, etc. 

In choosing examples, do not go outside or 
beyond the pupil's range. The idea will be 
illustrated again and again as the work goes on. 
It is only important to be clear as far as the work 
goes. The study is unquestionably valuable as a 
mental training. 

The description of various kinds of carriage, 
indicated in Letter Four, may be extended to 
any variable things under a single class-name. 
The unabridged Webster's dictionary will be a 
safe reference for the teacher, though she may 
simplify the language for her young class. 



32 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

A Study in Rhythm. The Skylark— James Hogg. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 40.] 

This poem is chosen on account of its musical 
flow. The diction is above the children, yet its 
beauties will not be lost upon them. Let it be 
committed to memory. 

The curves that stand over against it in the 
books indicate a phrasing of the lines according 
to rhythm. The irregular phrasing of the " Bel- 
fry Pigeon " and " Perseverance " may be called 
phrasing by sense, and this of the present lesson 
a phrasing by sound. All poetry admits of both, 
prose of but one method. 

If the teacher is musical, she may set the lines 
to simple melody in triple measure, so as to count 
time-beats which correspond to the syllables of 
the metrical feet, thus : 

One, two, three, one, two, three, 
One, two, three, one, two, three, 
One, two, three, one, two, three, one, two, three, 
one. 

Bird of the wilderness, 

Blithesome and cumberless, 

Sweet be thy matin o'er moorland and lea. 

The last foot contains only a single strong 
syllable. Read in connection with this lesson 
the letter on page 45 of the pupil's book, and 
introduce such poems from the reading-books in 
use as best illustrate strongly-marked rhythm. 



SECTION IV. 

Invention. — Chapter Four. Picking Apples. 
Conversation. — Letters Five and Six. The Study of 

Things. Doing and Being. 
Literature. — Did you Speak f Grasshopper and Cricket 

Sonnets. 

The Story. Picking Apples. 

Let the pupils draw a story from the illustra- 
tion at the head of the chapter, and let the writ- 
ten work be chiefly conversational. This will 
give opportunity for dwelling upon the use of 
quotation marks. 

Distinguish between the direct and the indi- 
rect quotation ; for example : 

1. " I can't carry so many," said Helen ; " you make 
me do all the hard part." 

2. Helen finally complained that the hard part of the 
work fell to her, and that she could not carry so many. 

Tell which is directly quoted, which indirect- 
ly. Quotation marks include only the words of 
direct quotation. 

Most conversations, especially among children, 



34 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

embrace language contractions which require the 
use of the apostrophe. The most common are 
the omissions of the vowel in not, after can, must, 
does, do, have, and ought, and the joining of its 
consonants to the preceding word. Require the 
writing of these forms. 

Picturing Things by Words. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 28.] 

Lessons of this kind are valuable in creating 
interest in the subject of language-training. 
The j succeed in the degree in which the impres- 
sion is deepened that language is a wonderful 
thing, and the power to use it skillfully a great 
attainment. 

After reading the letter with the class and 
requiring pupils to find each part in a specimen 
umbrella, and tell its use, the teacher says : 

" 1 have in mind a parasol that I will try to 
picture to you. Its staff is, etc. The handle is, 
etc. . . . 

" Can you imagine how it looks % " 

In a girl's school let ladies' costumes be de- 
scribed, and let pupils question, if the picture 
lacks in any particular needful for their mental 
seeing. 

It will be easy to multiply examples for this 
kind of training. The teacher's reading at the 
time may supply things, persons, and scenes 



CONFERS A TION.— WORDS. 35 

which will appeal to the interest of her class and 
cultivate their power of mental vision. When 
their time for work comes, choose very simple 
studies and accept fragmentary statements. 

Read the picture poem, " Did you Speak ? " 
on page 48 of the pupil's books. 

Words of Action and State. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 29.] 

Letter Six calls upon pupils to distinguish 
words that affirm, as distinct from words that 
name or that express quality. As this is a first 
lesson, it will be sufficient to gather and present 
to sight a large number of striking examples. 

The " work " that is done by these words is, 
in simple language, the telling (that is, affirming 
or stating) what a thing does, has, or is ; or un- 
der other time relations did, had, or was ; will 
do, will have, or will he. 

Questions, such as the following, call to mind 
more specific words under the general ones that 
head the letter. 

Examples: What do you do with your hands and 
arms ? Different pupils answer : I knit, crochet, sew 
(mend, hem, stitch, baste, run) ; I sweep, dust, iron ; I 
write, draw, cipher ; I whittle, play the piano, drive a 
horse, roll a hoop ; I carry things ; I knock ; I strike ; I 
clap; I comb my hair; I black my boots. There is no 
end to the list. 



36 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

For the use of is, and the words of its class, 
call attention to the fact that, though without it 
we could say " the red rose," we could not make 
the statement, " the rose is red." 

" Sick Mary " does not convey the same 
meaning as " Mary is sick." " White snow " 
might imply something quite different about 
other snow; but "snow is white" states a 
fact.. Knifeblade differs from " the knife has 
a blade." 

The statement of an action or condition calls 
into notice the element of time. The Germans 
call the verb the time-word. No technical treat- 
ment of the subject is needful at this stage — 
present, past, and future are words that grammar 
uses, but does not monopolize. 

Pupils will understand, without the help of 
grammar, whether a statement or word-form 
implies present, past, or future time, and may 
express its changes to correspond with either. 

" I lie in bed to-day," " I lay in bed yester- 
day," " I shall lie there to-morrow," are examples 
of useful repetition around irregular forms. The 
regular ones need no school exercises. 

The reading of the letter upon this subject 
makes a nucleus around which to gather points 
of teaching or criticism in ordinary speech, points 
of questioning upon the office of words in read- 
ing, and the partial identification of this third 
great class of words in language. 



LITERATURE. 37 

The Grasshopper and Cricket— Leigh Hunt. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 41.] 

This lesson is fully developed in the books of 
the pupils, and needs no suggestions. The author 
would emphasize. the suggestion, elsewhere given, 
that as many of these gems of thought and 
models of beautiful expression be committed to 
memory as can be made consistent with the 
powers of the pupils. The expression of the 
teachers 'personal enjoyment in them will go 
far toward inspiring similar taste in pupils. 
Boys, no less than girls, need a good sub- 
stratum of elevated thought to keep the stand- 
ards of life high and its affections simple and 
pure. 



SECTION V. 

Invention. — Going to the Corner. 
Word Study. — Review. 
Literature. — Gamarra and Roland. 

The Story. Going to the Corner. 

The material for this chapter embraces the 
fording of the river by Charlie, made exciting 
by the swelling of the streams in the recent 
rain, and the attempt to ford at a new place; 
also the account of a miscellaneous country 
store, which to city children seems to contain 
in epitome the entire business street of a town. 
Dry goods, fancy goods and trimmings, cloth- 
ing, hats, boots and shoes, groceries, medicines,, 
perfumes, tools, hardware, hay, feed, and grain, 
with a host of things besides, the one store- 
keeper brings forth at call from some odd place 
of storing. The post-office also has its corner, 
and a revolving cylinder, crossed with tapes, holds 
and advertises all the mail matter, including, on 
this occasion, a letter post-marked with the name 
of their own home, in the well-known hand- 
writing of their mamma. 



REVIEW. 39 

They occupy a half -hour in deciding how to 
spend their pocket-money, watch the other pur- 
chasers, and the meeting of neighborhood farmers 
around the stove in the center of the great aisle, 
then go home to read aloud their letter, which 
the pupils must invent and write. 

The explanatory letter on page 3 of the cover 
of their books will give all needful help. 

A Review. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 33.] 

Lesson - I. What general term includes blacksmith, phy- 
sician, soldier, gentleman, Indian, savage ? 

By what marks could each of the six classes of men be 
separately distinguished? 

The blacksmith, by being at work at his forge, by 
wearing a leather apron, by strong, muscular arms, often 
by sooty hands, and a face browned by the hot, bright 
fire of the forge. 

The physician, by being seen driving (perhaps in a 
covered buggy) rapidly through the town each day, as if 
on business, calling at houses where there are sick per- 
sons; by his questions to the patient; by the writing of 
a prescription or the giving of medicine. 

What marks a soldier? By what conduct is a gentle- 
man known ? What are the race characteristics of the 
Indian, and what kind of life marks the savage? 

Lesson II. Individual Terms. — How do words like Santa 
Claus, Franklin, Venus, etc., differ from those of Lesson I ? 

Picture a person who personates Santa Claus. 

Tell by what you remember Benjamin Franklin and 
the other persons named ? 



40 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

What picture have you for Niagara? 

How does your imagination of St. Louis differ from 
that of New York? 

How does the sun differ from the moon ? 

Can you distinguish Venus from Jupiter ? 

Lesson III. Conception^] Terms. — The general idea of 
ocean is a vast body of water. Limiting words emphasize 
other thoughts of it, as, the blue ocean, the white-capped, 
stormy ocean. 

Words for describing the country are quiet, lonely, beauti- 
ful, dreary, fertile, barren, hot, or cold. For example, Lap- 
land is a cold, dreary country. 

Lesson IV. After explaining the poetical lines of this 
exercise call upon the pupils to quote a line that pictures 
the loneliness of the sea ; one that shows it in opposite 
character. 

What tells of its constant changefulness, and what of 
its unchanging character? 

What couplet calls attention to it as a purifier of the 
atmosphere ? 

What to its immensity of volume? 

What to safety upon its waters ? 

Lesson V. Do not require pupils to use the words and 
phrases of the book in telling a story of a storm at sea r 
except in so far as they wish. The point of the lesson 
is, to impress the idea of the suggestiveness of words. 
The question is, *' Do these phrases help you to picture a 
storm ? " 

Lesson VI. The subjects in this lesson are abstract 
words, and the requirement in each case an individual 
picture. "Poverty" may call to the mind of one a case 
of family sickness and destitution ; to another, lines from 
Little Gretchen. Accept whatever illustrates the meaning. 

Lesson VII. This lesson carries the class back to the 
umbrella study. Let the parts and qualities be noted in 



LITERATURE. 41 

an orderly way. If the description of a watch begin with 
the case, let all that is to be said of it come before any 
study of the works. 

In general, let principal parts be first noted, then the 
secondary ones belonging to each, and let attention be 
given to the form in which the work is recorded. 

The Stormy Petrel— Barry Cornwall. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 43.] 
QUESTIONS AND NOTES. 

Who are a thousand miles from land, and what 
is it that is tossed and tumbled from billow to 
billow ? 

How are fleecy clouds treated by the stormy 
winds ? and what are the signs that the ship will 
have no better fate ? 

Name the order in which the parts yield to a 
power stronger than themselves, and tell what 
they are said to do when overpowered? How 
are the hearts on board like the ship itself, 
and what effect does the storm have upon 
them ? 

Consider now what this picture of a ship at 
sea in a storm has to do with a poem on the 
Stormy Petrel. Is it not also one of many home- 
pictures ? 

The name Petrel comes, it is said, from the 
stor} r of Peter the apostle walking on the sea. 

What line describes the strength and swift- 
ness of the bird's flight ? 



42 • STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

What is his message to the sailor, and how is 
it often received ? 

To what does the poet compare the bird, and 
in what resemblance does he counsel him to con- 
tinue ? 



SECTION VI. 

Invention. — Boating. Good-by and Welcome Home, 
The Study of Words. — Equivalent Expressions. 
Literature. — Robert of Lincoln and a Revieio of all the 
Poems. 

The Story. A Boating' Experience. 

The same cause that made fording difficult 
renders boating easy. The children persuade 
their uncle and aunt that they may be trusted 
with the old flat-bottomed boat. The story may 
picture a happy afternoon upon the river or 
pond, and end with one of the many accidents 
to which such an adventure is liable. 

A single page is left to record the closing of 
the visit, the journey, and the home welcome. 

Having completed the list of studies, the re- 
maining time may be spent in revising the writ- 
ten work of the school term, drawing from it 
the amount which the blank pages of the book 
will contain, and in recording it with neatness and 
care. Free of other language work, the teacher 
may concentrate the entire attention upon these 
important elements of early training. 



44 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Equivalent Expressions. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 35.] 

" The new neighbors are very poor." 
' The lesson requires the pupil to express this 
statement in other words. 

First, throw out the word " neighbors," and 
we have as its equivalent " people who live near 
by " ; " new " implies that they have lately come ; 
with this help let the statement be made. 

Second, it is probably a family of people 
that has recently moved into the neighborhood. 
Make " family " and " recently " the points of 
change, and use the word " vicinity." 

Third, begin the statement with "Near 
us," and let the pupils tell how to complete 
it. 

Fourth, find other words for " poor " with 
which " very " can be used, and make new forms 
with any or all the foregoing changes. 

Fifth, substitute words for " very poor," such 
as " extremely destitute," " without the necessi- 
ties of life," " in great poverty," " in want of 
food and clothing," etc. Let the forms be writ- 
ten after having been first orally expressed. 

Treat the other exercises in a similar way. 
If pupils are slow in finding expressions, ques- 
tion or suggest. Let it be their work to appro- 
priate and remember. 



LITERATURE. 45 

Robert of Lincoln— Bryant. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 43.] 

Call attention to musical flow, length of lin' «, 
rhyming words, and the truth of the portraits j 
for each of the two birds. 

It is desirable that the work should be com- 
pleted so that the closing days of a term may be 
spent in gathering the work into a whole and 
reviewing its general scope. The points which 
" Studies in Poetry " have mainly dwelt upon are 
the picture-making power in words, the distinc- 
tions of rhythmical movement as marks of sepa- 
rate poems, rhyming words, and equivalent ex- 
pressions. 

The last reading of the poems may touch 
upon all these points, and the pupils may act the 
role of the literary reviewer in studying them. 



BOOK II 



SECTION I. 



Liteeatuee. — The Settler's Cabin. Little Gustava. 
Woed Study. — Words of Relation. 
Invention. —Pioneer Life. 

The Settler's Cabin. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 1.] 
questions and suggestions. 

Rhythm. — The omission of "in" and "his" 
makes the arrangement of syllables perfectly 
regular in the metrical feet of the first four lines. 
These two words, needful for the sense, may yet 
be passed over so lightly as not to break the 
rhythm, as may also " a " in the first foot of the 
last line. Study the remaining stanzas in similar 
way. 

Pupils will be able to make their own defini- 
tion for an iamhus, first by referring it to the 
higher class metrical feet, and second by telling 
its distinguishing mark, as one of the kinds of 
feet. 



LITERATURE. 47 

The Story. — The change from poetry to 
prose lays aside metrical movement, and some- 
times the especially poetical forms of expression. 
" Brawny double hands," " knees " for rafters, 
and " bare arms " for leafless branches, are strong- 
er figures than would be used in prose by young 
writers. 

Kinds of Wokds. — The picture-making words 
are noted, explained, and thrown out to call into 
prominence the so-called tmpresentative words / 
that is, those which do not present a picture to 
the mind. It is difficult to tell in all cases what 
such words do present. It may be an idea of the 
relation, direction, degree, cause, or tendency of 
the things, qualities, or acts which picture-mak- 
ing words have presented. A look at the ellip- 
tical stanza on page 3 shows that they carry no 
meaning by themselves. For present teaching, 
the meaning of each in its place, so far as it can 
be recognized, is sufficient. 

For example, we could not tell the place where the 
cabin was built without the help of " in." 

A cleared patch might be mentioned without " of," 
but the two things, patch and clearing, could not be 
named in connection but for its help. 

Of course the patch was larger than " double hands." 
It is the extreme smallness that the writer wishes to im- 
press vividly, as she does by using " scarcely more than." 

" And," in reading, means little more than the sign 
plus in arithmetic, and " with " helps also to put things 
together in the mind. 



48 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

The exercise of dividing words into these 
two great classes is the preparation for future 
lessons leading to Parts of Speech. 

Little Gustava» 

This poem follows the same line of treatment 
as the preceding, except in the matter of rhythm 
in which the feet have three syllables, as a rule, 
with accent on the first. The first line lacks but 
a syllable of being regular dactyllic movement, 
but the study of each line would carry the pu- 
pils too far into metrical composition, and the 
teacher may leave it after counting a few of its 
lines, herself, to show the general character. 

The picture-words greatly predominate. Let 
the class count them in each stanza. If there is 
doubt about the personal pronouns, question to 
what each refers, and find the picture in the ref- 
erence, and not in the word itself. 

In the line of natural analysis ask such ques- 
tions as the following : 

What can you tell from the poem : of the 
time of day, time of year, and weather ? 

Describe, in the words of the poem, the cat, 
the hen, the doves, the dog, the sparrow, and 
crow. Quote the single word which tells in each 
case what Gustava does for her pets. 

The story will be retold easily, and in few 
words For example : 



CONVER&A TIOS.- WORDS. 49 

" On one of the early spring mornings little Gnstava 
might have been seen," etc. 

" The Story of Pioneer Life " will call into 
exercise the pupil's geographical knowledge. 
Read, if possible, the poems by Miss Larcora 
on prairie life, " Elsie in Illinois," and " A 
Prairie Nest." The exercise having been written 
on practice paper, may be filed till near, the end 
of the term, then revised and recorded in the 
book. 

Words of Relation. 

QUESTIONS UPON THE POEM OF " THE BROOK." 

[Letters and Lessons, page 20.] 

'' I come from haunts of coot and hern, 
I make a sudden sally, 1 ' etc. 

What is the relation between the coming in 
the first line of the brook's answer and the 
haunts ? or, What does the word " from " put 
into relation ? 

How are " coot and hern " put into relation 
with haunts ? 

" Of " commonly means possession — a man 
of wealth, eggs of birds, haunts of birds ; what 
is the relation between the haunts and these two 
kinds of bird i 

State the relation shown by " among '' — or 
tell what word puts " I sparkle " into relation 
with " the fern." With what is " valley " put 
into relation ? 
3 



50 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

In the same way tell the following points of 
relation : 

" I hurry " " thirty hills." 

" Or slip " " the ridges." 

"By," meaning past, joins " thorp," "town," 
and " bridges " in a relation to some act of the 
brook. What is it ? 

What connection is there between 
" I chatter " and " stony ways." 
" I chatter " and " sharps and trebles." 
" I bubble " and " eddying bays." 
u I babble " and " the pebbles." 
"I wind" and "a blossom," "a trout," "a 
grayling." 

Into what relation does a " foamy flake " 
come, and what connects the " waterbreak " with 
the gravel ? 

Return to this selection when Letter Twelve 
has been read, to show the use of " out " after 
sparkle ; " down " after hurry ; " about " and 
" in and out " after wind ; also, " here " and 
" there " ; " along," " on," and " forever." 

If the posin had been written especially in 
the interest of prepositions and adverbs it could 
not have been made to serve their purpose better. 

If the class studying these words of relation 
are intelligent enough to take their meaning 
readily, the teacher may classify the words some- 
what. 



CONVERSA TION.— WORDS. 5 1 

" On," " upon," " at," indicate rest or place ; " toward," 
"from," "past," "through," imply motion ; "of" denotes 
possession or belonging; " for " means reason or cause ; 
" except " separates, as does also in a sense " against." 

All this definiteness, however, can well afford 
to wait its time and place in scientific grammar. 



SECTION II. 

Litekature. — Little Bell. The Magpies. 

Word Study. — Other Relations. Words of Reference. 

Invention. — Doing and Telling How. Opening an Or 



Little Bell. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 4.] 

ADDED QUESTIONS TO FOLLOW THOSE OF PUPIL'S BOOKS. 

Which metrical foot of the first line takes the em- 
phasis? Which is to be passed over most lightly? 

Does the quotation contained in the second and third 
lines admit of metrical accents at all? 

With what other line does the third correspond in 
length and movement ? 

What word tells the relation into which the bird and 
the beechwood are brought in the first line ? Is the rela- 
tion between tree and bird, or between tree and piped, 
according to the line ? 

How is the maiden said to be wandering? Usage re- 
quires that we use slowly to describe an act, slow to describe 
a thing. The poet breaks the rule for a better sound in 
his line, and in such a case we approve his doing so. In 
prose it would be an error. 

What is meant by "the while "? 

Read the fourth stanza as follows, and tell if its mean- 
ing is made more apparent : While the bonny bird poured 



LITERATURE. 53 

his heart out (that is, sung his song of love), freely again 
and again, or over and over, under the morning sky, the 
sweetness in the childish heart below seemed to grow 
and grow, and to shine forth from the bright blue eyes in 
happy overflow. 

Try to do the same with the fifth stanza. 

Such exercises at each doubtful place will 
make, not only this, but all reading more in- 
telligent. 

The Magpies. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 5.] 

Read in connection with these verses the 
fable of " The Lion and the Mouse " (page 34, L. 
and L.), to show the interpretation of fables. 
Recall familiar fables of iEsop, where quarrels 
between animals resulted in the loss of that 
which occasioned the dispute, it being taken as a 
fee by the one who was chosen to decide between 
the parties. In this case quarreling led to battle, 
and no one gained ; the offending members — a 
beak and a claw — being all that was saved from 
destruction. 

Shape a story in class, leaving only language 
work for the effort of each pupil in writing. 

Other Relations. 

After the class-reading of Letter Ten, give 
simple statements, and require pupils to unite 
them by the aid of the words now brought into 
prominence for study. 



54 



STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 



For a new exercise write upon the board 
simple sentences, thus : 

I left home, | I was sick. 

I shall return, ) T ,, . 
T T 11 , ' 1 am better. 
I shall not go, j 

I will go, | I am able. 

If the connecting words are not readily sug- 
gested by the class, supplement the list by any 
that can be used, and require the pupils to trace 
the relations after finding the place for inserting 
them. 

The pairs of sentences may be taken in either 
order : 



I left home 



because 

when 

though, although 

before, after 

while, for 



I was sick. 



I was sick 



when 

but 

before, after 



I left home. 



Study of Examples by Transposition. 

Pleasure said : 

1. I'll wake ray merriest measure, or 

2. We'll sit beneath the red rose tree if 

3. You choose ; and 

4. We'll twine a wreath. 



CONVERSA TIOX.— WORDS. 55 

Sorrow said : 

1. They're not for me when 

2. That black cloud is in the west, and 

3. It will storm to-morrow. 

Note that in this kind of relation a full state- 
ment is made in each part. Decide in which 
cases each statement would convey its meaning 
apart from the other. 

In case of sentences joined by and and but, 
this is often true. The words if and unless 
throw some doubt upon one or other of the parts 
of the compound sentence. 

In the study of poems, do not ash the use of 
a word if in your judgment the class as a whole 
would not easily perceive it if challenged to at- 
tention by your question ; but, if to know it 
would make the sense clearer to them, tell them 
plainly. 

Words of Reference. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 22.] 

The words of this lesson include the class 
pronouns as treated in grammar. 

The chief difference between the classes is 
that some fulfill also the office of conjunctions 
in connecting clauses. All that is desinble in 
present teaching is given in the letter. The use 
of the knowledge is to be shown only by ask- 
ing in a given case, "To what does this word 
refer," or the saying, without a question, in such 



56 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

a case as " Quoth he," " he " refers to blackbird, 
" what " refers to the name that the blackbird 
wants to know, and " your " to little Bell her- 
self, in the line : 

" What's your name ? quoth he." 

The ordinary study of poems will afford ample 
occasion for questioning upon this class of words. 

A little knowledge of the figure called Per- 
sonification helps in analysis, since children's 
poetry is especially full of it. The examples of 
the letter represent the objects as persons speak- 
ing. It will be easy to find in the reading books 
of their grade examples of the use of the second 
person, that is, the person addressed, similar to 
the following : 

" White rose, talk to me, 
I don't know what to do; 
Why do you say no words to me, 
Who say so much to you." 

Or the third, a person spoken about, as in the 
example of " Sorrow and Pleasure," on page 6. 

Doing and Telling How. Opening an Orange. 

Read with the class the lessons that are 
wrought out in their books : Pointing a Pencil, 
and The Mysterious Apple. Enforce the neces- 
sity of a full, orderly statement of the method in 
every case. 



INVENTION. 



57 




If the lesson time comes when an orange can 
not be had, draw upon memory and imagination, 
and, when the season returns, draw the papers 
from the file, and test the correctness of the 
statements by following them in doin 



g the work. 



SECTION III. 

Litekatu-ke.— Little Sorrow. Battle of Blenheim, 
Wokd Study. — Words of Circumstance. 
Invention.— Hopeful and Fearful. The Story of Blen- 
heim. 

Little Sorrow. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 6.] 

Read in connection with this exercise the 
selections under Fable, Allegory, and Parable 
(L. and L., page 33). Let pupils decide to which 
class Little Sorrow belongs. 

Find other exclamations which might be 
equivalent expressions for " Woe's me ! " 

What is the meaning of " pipe " ? 

Explain the lines, " I have no heart" etc., 
and " I am too sore at heart." Find other expres- 
sions for the same thought and feeling. 

Compare " If it storm " with " If it storms." 
Both are authorized ; the former is like the com- 
mon expression, " If it should storm," the latter 
an equivalent for " If it does storm." 

Question upon the office of words in " a black 
cloud " — " the rain from me." " I want neither 



LITERATURE. 59 

dance nor flowers." "If to-day we miss the 
storm, poor comfort ; 'twill surely come to-mor- 
row." 

These exercises touch upon every kind of 
word that has been studied, so making a review. 

The Battle of Blenheim— Southey. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 8.] 

POINTS FOE QUESTIONS. 

1. Extent of Meaning in Words. — Compare the phrase, 
"an evening, 1 ' with u a summer evening"; "the old 
man," and " man " ; " stream," and " yon little stream " ; 
"men," and "many thousand men." 

Could the words Kaspar, Peterkin, or Wilhelmine be 
limited in their use other than they are by being indi- 
vidual names ? 

What effect do "old," "young," and "little," have as 
used with them? 

Of what are " duke " and " prince " names? 

What will you substitute for "quoth," a nay," " yon," 
in telling the story in your own words? 

What people had the right to call Prince Eugene "Our 
good Prince " ? 

Blenheim was a small Bavarian village. It happened 
to be the place for the heaviest battle of a series, and it 
was estimated that eighty thousand men fought on each 
side. The Duke of Marlborough led the English, an'd 
Prince Eugene the Austrians. Together they gained the 
"famous victory." 

The answer to little Wilhelmine's question was "the 
right to sit on the throne of Spain," which was claimed 
both by Charles of Austria, and Philip of France. The 
English helped Austria. 



60 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Words of Circumstance. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 24.] 

The line, " Pretty maid, slow wandering this 
way," in the preceding exercise, makes natural 
opportunity for distinguishing between a word 
which describes a thing and one which describes 
an act or quality. 

Poety ignores, at pleasure, this formal dis- 
tinction of the adjective and adverb. In the 
line, " The glad bright sun shines warm at last," 
the question whether " warm " describes the sun 
or the shining may call out different opinions; 
so also in " Very calm and clear rose the praying 
voice," in the poem of this section. There is no 
occasion for making much account of the matter. 
If the point in the last example is to picture the 
voice, " calm and clear " are the words for doing 
it, calmly and clearly would correctly describe 
the rising ; and the distinction is very slight be- 
tween a voice and its rising. 

One or two plain examples may be in point 
at this time. The fuller treatment comes in con- 
nection with modifiers in Book Four, The Song 
of the Blackbird. 

" Now so round and rich, now soft and slow" 
is an example of describing things. 

" She spoke softly and slowly" illustrates de- 
scribing acts. 

The practical use of the knowledge is in the 



CON VERS A TIOX. - WORDS. 61 

analysis of examples in reading, as a help to a 
finer apprehension of their meaning. 

The class marks of the adverb are very few. 
The kinds differ among themselves more than 
the class itself differs from the other great classes, 
except in the one particular of not describing or 
limiting things. 

The questions touching " how," " when," 
" where," " to what extent or degree," " in what 
direction," are practical and useful. 

Tell which of the above questions is appro- 
priate to each of the italicized words or phrases 
of the following studies from the lessons in 
poetry : 

" Up, away, the frisky squirrel hies." 

" The settler's rifle, bright and brown, 
Hangs high . . . on the rafter hooks." 

" And the yellow cat lies all of a curl 
In the lajy of a two years' blue-eyed girl." 

a Little Bell sat down amid the fern. 1 '' 

" Among the thistles on the hill, 
In tears, sat Little Sorrow !" 

" The sweetness seemed to grow and grow, 
And shine forth . . . in happy overflow." 

It is earnestly hoped that this kind of study 
will so commend itself to the teacher's good sense 
that she will see in it a means of studying litera- 
ture, and an indirect, but none the less effective, 



62 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

method of improving the ordinary conversational 
language of every day life. 

Hopeful and Fearful. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 6.] 

Class papers upon this subject may be re- 
quired in dialogue form, thus presenting the say- 
ings of each person without comment. 

To avoid misunderstanding, the name of the 
speaker is given each time that he or she is repre- 
sented as speaking in dialogue or dramatic com- 
position. Let pupils tell what takes its place in 
ordinary stories. It is a good exercise to read a 
page of a story, selecting the sayings that it con- 
tains and omitting all else. 

The dialogue or drama inserts whatever is 
needful in the way of explanation, circumstances 
of time, place, etc., the entrance or exit of the 
speakers or others, and anything of action not 
suggested by the conversation in notes put within 
parentheses, as something apart from the dis- 
course of speakers, and so from the dialogue it- 
self. 

Tell the pupils ol the leading standard au- 
thors, in dramatic composition, at the head of 
which list comes Shakespeare, nearly all of whose 
productions were written to be acted upon the 
stage. 



LI1ERA1URE. 63 

The Story of Blenheim. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 4fi.] 

This exercise in equivalent expression needs 
the aid of transposition, analysis, and a study of 
the facts to which the poem refers. 

If the teacher finds direction needful, the fol- 
lowing questions and statements may serve her 
purpose : 

What and where is Blenheim ? 

The battle referred to occurred on August 5, 
1705, in the time of Queen Anne in England, 
and Louis XIV in France. It was an occasion 
of terrible loss of life on both sides. 

A memorable result was the gaining by Eng- 
land of the control of the Strait of Gibraltar, 
the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea. 

What signs of the battle were to be found at 
Blenheim at the time of which the poem speaks? 
What one such sign led to Ivaspar's talk with 
his grandchildren ? Did he remember the battle 
himself ? 

What does the conversation show about the 
glory of war when its cause is not so plain as to 
be remembered ? 

What do you think was Southey's opinion \ 



SECTION IV. 

N 

Litekature. — The Barefoot Boy. The Swarfs Rest. 

Woed Study. — Studies in Comparison. 

Invention. — Leaf from Receipt Book. Preserving Flowers. 

The Barefoot Boy, and The Swan's Nest. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 9, 10.] 

These two subjects are treated with sufficient 
fullness for present needs in the pupils' books. 
Observe the illustration of the rhythm on page 
17, and quote lines that plainly indicate it. 

Studies in Comparison. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 24.] 

Knowledge not only begins, but proceeds by 
comparison. 

It is complete when it has discriminated all 
points of likeness and difference. It is probable 
that differences strike the mind first, resemblances 
being taken for granted. 

Snow is known practically when it is distin- 
guished from fog, rain, and hail. The blue of 
the sky is noticed after a succession of gray days. 

By rediscovering what others have known, 



CONVERSA TION.—GOMPA RI80N. 65 

and tracing likenesses that have been recognized 
before, the pupil is put in the way of making 
new discoveries. To his own thought there need 
be no difference in the two cases. 

The value of study in this line should be 
plainly understood. It does not lie in the com- 
parison itself, but in the deeper knowledge and 
insight which comparison gives. In other words, 
it is a means rather than an end, whether in the 
simple parallels of school study or the classifica- 
tions of science, 

The working out of the ~Q.ve subjects given 
on page 26 should be somewhat after the follow- 
ing model. No one pupil, however, is expected 
to do all the work suggested. 

The Hen and the Drick. 

Both the hen and the duck are poultry birds. The 
hen is wholly domestic. Of the duck family the larger 
number are wild. 

The duck belongs both to the land and the water ; the 
hen only to the land. The hen has a round body, short, 
broad wings, and free, loose feathers. The duck's body is 
long and oval, flattened above and below. The feathers 
of the duck are close and smooth. 

The legs of the duck fall far back. It would tip for- 
ward in walking but for the long and wide-spreading toes. 
They are thrown backward in swimming and flying, and 
so are best placed for its three kinds of motion. The hen 
has small feet that support the body at the middle. They 
are wide apart, and she is a great walker. 

The bill of the duck is long, broad, and perforated. 
She picks her food from the mud. The hen's bill is short 



66 



STUDIES IN LANG UAGE. 



and stout, her feet, with their strong, blunt claws, bring 
her food to the surface of the ground, and she has only to 
take it with her bill. 

The sound of the duck is like the word quack, that of 
the hen like three or four words with the emphasis on the 
last but one. It is either a cluck or a cackle. 




75- 



Preserving Flowers and Leaves. Other Doings. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 38, 39, 42.] 

It is the office of a school to promote indi- 
rectly much that it does not specifically teach. 
All practical knowledge should be encouraged as 
of equal value with book-learning. Household 
work for boys and girls stands at the head of 
such practical skill, and the teacher may do some- 
thing toward creating an enthusiasm for it. 



INVENTION. 67 

In a girls' school more than is suggested in 
their books under this head may be wisely at- 
tempted at home and reported at school ; and 
the range is such that boys as well as girls may 
choose from its list without exceeding their 
proper functions. Let a class recitation present 
orally each topic to be written before pupils are 
left to their individual work. 

This kind of composition should be marked 
by simple language, brief and direct statement, 
and orderly method. 



SECTION Y. 

Liteea-TUEe. — Lochinvar. A Chiles Talk in April. 
Woed Studies. — Simile. Metaphor. 
Invention. — Care of Sich. A Spelling Match. 

Loclriiivar — Scott. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 12.] 

Rhythm. — Turn to page 17 and observe how 
the movement, or rhythm, is illustrated. Draw 
upon slates the six lines of curves, making the 
arc of the curves as long as the slate will allow, 
and leaving space between the lines sufficient for 
ordinary writing ; then proceed to write the lines 
of a stanza of the poem within the curves, so as 
to phrase the poem according to the sound. This 
phrasing will for the future be called scanning. 

Meaning of Words. — Distinguish between 
the name " gallant," the quality " gallant," and 
the verb " gallant." The former is usually ac- 
cented on the last syllable, and means a court- 
eous, polite gentleman. When pronounced gal- 
lant the word is used to describe the highest 
courage. Lochinvar is contrasted with the das- 



CONVERSATION. 69 

tard, that is, coward, to whose .wedding he had 
come. 

Tell in what ways the bridegroom is pictured 
in different stanzas. 

The "galliard" (gay Lochinvar) gained the 
bride by strategy. Tell how it is pictured in the 
poem. 

Simile and Metaphor. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 29 and 30.] 

The two marks of a simile are also those of a 
metaphor; namely, a gleam of likeness under 
essential difference ; and yet the two figures are 
distinct. 

Simile states a likeness. 

Metaphor implies an identity. 

Something of this belongs to a pupil's first 
impression of the two. It must, however, be 
taught by illustration rather than by abstract 
definition. 

Making metaphors is like what children un- 
derstand by " calling names." It is the attribut- 
ing of new names, epithets, or acts, from some 
recognized resemblance. The recognition of the 
resemblance is either a plain comparison or figure 
of speech, according as the things compared are 
or are not of the same nature. 

The boy's lips look as if they had been kissed 
by lips that had left their redness. The metaphor 
throws away the "as if,' ? and says, "kissed by 



70 STUDIES IN~ LANGUAGE. 

strawberries." This distinction is not an un- 
profitable nicety even for children. 

Trace in similar way the process which re- 
sulted in lines like the following : 

" Every evening from thy feet 
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat." — (An act.) 

"Every morn shall lead thee through 
Fresh baptisms of the dew." — (A name or thing.) 

" All too soon these feet must hide 
In the prison-cells of pride." — (A name.) 

"Though the flinty slopes (of life) be hard.'''' — (A name 
and quality.) 

" Quick and treacherous sands of sin." 

" Made to tread the mills of toil 
Up and down in ceaseless moil." 

The rules of health are " mocked " by the safe way in 
which boys daily break them. 

The black wasp is a " mason," and the hornet 
an " architect " and an " artisan." 

The brook laughs, whispers, and talks " face 
to face." 

Of the nature of simile are the following : 

" All the world I saw or knew seemed a complex Chi- 
nese toy." 

" Like a colt's for work be shod." 

Recognizing a similarity between love and a 
river, the young Lochinvar says — 



METAPHOR.— SIMILE. 71 

"Love swells like the Sol way, but ebbs like her tide," 
so making two similes. 

The old proverb that the course of true love 
never runs smoothly, makes a metaphor out of 
the same similarity. 

Classify the following selected lines by this 
test question, " Is the likeness stated or is it im- 
plied I " 

" Her soul was like a star and dwelt apart." 

" It mocks the skies, 
Or like a cradled creature lies." 

"I will take the wings of the morning and dwell in 
the uttermost parts of the sea." 

" And on the wings of mighty winds came flying all 
abroad." 

" Your wings will have to be clipped, little runaway." 

u "We shall soon be on the wing again." 

" We are like stranded ships waiting a fuller tide." 

" Let your path in life be like footprints in snow, 
leaving marks but not stains." 

A Child's Talk in April. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 12.] 

Rhythm. — To be studied as that of the pre- 
ceding lesson. 

Meaning- of Words. — Study "cozy," "rec- 
oncilement," " wearied," " paternal," " enacting," 



72 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

"embryo," "gradual," as here used. Describe 
a wren's nest, and tell the class of the wren's 
habit of bringing up two broods in the season — 
one in April, the other in the early autumn. 

Care of the Sick. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 40.] 

This subject is a useful one for general in- 
struction. Let the writing grow naturally out of 
the discussion. If any item of " care " is of 
especial interest, let it be the one to record as a 
means of keeping the knowledge gained. The 
less instruction about the way of writing the bet- 
ter ; when the work is done, make it the subject 
of careful criticism. Require the exactness of 
statement that belongs to explicit direction. 

A Spelling Match. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 41.] 

Conduct a review in spelling on this plan, and 
afterward require the class to describe the exer- 
cise. 



SECTION VI. 

Literature. — The Heritage. Flowers. Birds' Orchestra. 
"Word Study. — Degrees of Comparison. Contrast. 
Invention. — Croquet Playing. 

The Heritage. Flowers. The Birds' Orchestra. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 13.] 

The poems of this page may be taken together 
as 

STUDIES in comparison. 

" Heritage " is here used in its fullest extent 
of meaning. It covers all that comes as a result 
of different conditions in life — the pride that one 
who has been born to riches inherits so naturally 
that he hardly recognizes it till his circumstances 
change and he is obliged to "wear a garment 
old"; the helplessness that comes of never hav- 
ing been trained to self-support, and the lack of 
hardihood that belongs to a luxurious life. 

In contrast with these are set powers that are 
often developed by necessity in the case of " the 
poor man's son." 

In the first four stanzas the poet's sympathy 
seems to be with the poor ; in the fifth and sixth 
4 



74 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

he exalts each condition by showing its oppor- 
tunities, and in the seventh he groups both for 
their common value. These points the pu]3ils of 
a class may be led to discover and appreciate. 

In Flowers, appropriate metaphors show like- 
nesses and give names. The sunflower is intro- 
duced as the goddess Clytie, the tulip as a co- 
quette. The cowslip is a rustic, the violet a nun. 

Notice the two forms of the word queen. 
The former, quean, is the older word, but it fell 
into reproach as a name, and now is no compli- 
ment to those who are called by it. When the 
word " queen " came to be chosen as the title for 
the wife of a king, or the ruling lady of a king- 
dom, the other word dropped out of usual speech. 

In Birds' Orchestra the comparison is made 
with great delicacy and appreciation. The song 
of each bird is compared with the music of some 
instrument, yet no formal comparison appears. 

Degrees of Comparison. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 31.] 

Any grammar will furnish examples for word 
forms in comparison. The use of the " superla- 
tive " to describe what is highest of its kind be- 
longs to general speech, and only secondarily to 
technical grammar. It is a good w T ord to use 



INVEXTWW 75 

with pupils to describe the extravagant use that 
is often made of words of highest degree. The 
point to emphasize is that only one thing of a 
kind can be "best," "prettiest," "largest," or 
finest " ; or, on the other hand, " worst," " ugliest," 
etc. The rule should be, " Deal sparingly with 
superlatives." 

The same caution holds in the use of the 
phrase " as tired as I can be " for ordinary 
fatigue, and the homely proverbs suggested in 
the verses of Letter Sixteen. 

Croquet Playing. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 44.] 

The paragraph notes afford sufficient help for 
an oral picturing of this well-known game, and 
the writing will present no peculiar difficulties if 
the teacher assures herself that the steps of the 
game are fully understood by each pupil before 
he attempts to write. 

It may be advisable to require the jmpils to 
ask questions that present the steps of the play in 
their order. 



SECTION YII. 

Literature. — Alice Brand. Songs and Hymns. 

Conversation. — Review. 

Invention. — Revision of Written Work. 

Alice Brand. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 14.] 

Ryhthm. — The second and fourth stanzas in- 
dicate the rhythm of this ballad more plainly 
than the first. Draw the curves as a preparation 
for recording the poem upon page 18. 

The Ballad Story. — The first section of 
the ballad pictures Lord Richard's experience in 
winning his bride, a common story in Scotch 
annals. What quality in the bride shows she 
was worth the winning? 

The second introduces the romance, common 
also to Scotch stories. The king of the spirits of 
the hill and wood resents the intrusion into his 
domain, and sends one of their captives, formerly 
a man, to effect, if possible, their banishment. 
The common superstition was that the elf -people 
always fled before the mention of the names of 
the real Deity. The hideous dwarf, having been 



REVIEW. 77 

once a man, is supposed to be able to resist even 
the strongest expression of Christian trust and 
invocation. 

The third tells his experience with the Lord 
and Lad j. In which stanzas does LTrgan test 
their courage, and in which is the result told ? 
Lord Richard is supposed to be English, and to 
have come over the border on hunting expedi- 
tions or for other adventure, and so to have met 
the fair Lady Alice. 

Songs and Hymns. 

The short poems of pages 15 and 16 are de- 
signed for occasional recitation and use. They 
are strongly marked in their rhythm, which may 
he recorded, where this has not been already 
done, on page 18. 

General Review. 

The lessons of the book having been taken, 
it remains to the class to go through the book a 
second time to revise and record the inventive 
work, if it has not been already entered in the 
books, and to re-read the selections and letters. 
No other review is desirable, as the next books 
keep in mind the salient points of this one, and 
have the added advantage of fresh examples. 



BOOK III 



SECTION I. 



Conversation. — The Meanings in Words. 

Literature. — Chorus of Flowers. Discourse of Flowers. 

Hymn to the Flowers. 
Intention. — Boyhood of Benjamin Franklin. 

The Meaning of Words. 

The beginning of a new number in the 
books of this series, probably the entering upon 
a new term at school with a new teacher, and 
possibly, for some pupils, the added newness 
of beginning the series with this third book, 
make it a matter of economy to the teacher 
to have a good understanding of the aims 
of the author and the ends to be sought in the 
lessons. 

The fundamental principle underlying all the 
exercises is a knowledge of words in their living- 
ness. Letter One calls attention to the fact that 
a general dictionary definition is insufficient, that 



CONVERSATION— WORDS. 79 

there must be a recognition of possible degrees 
in the force and clearness of words, and that each 
case of using is to be studied, if the meaning is 
not at once apprehended, for the value put upon 
the word by the author. 

This recognition of meaning is a natural act, 
performed in cases of simple usage unconscious- 
ly ; but it is also an essential element of training. 
For training purposes language should be chossn 
that taxes the mind a little in the effort needed 
to rise to the footing of the author. In common 
speech the need is not felt, and pausing to weigh 
and balance what is perfectly clear is felt to be 
wearisome and unprofitable. 

The method of conducting recitations should 
be simple and natural ; after a few lessons it 
should be so plainly uniform that both teacher 
and pupil seem to work under a natural law. 

Let the letter be read, and let such comments 
be made and such questions asked as are re- 
quired for its comprehension. If exercises are 
introduced, calling for thought on the part of 
pupils, let one or two. of them be orally devel- 
oped in such a way as pupils may be supposed 
to develop the others, at least in part, without 
aid. 

In the case of this letter call for statements 
using the word " home," and such quotations 
from the memory of the class as can be focalized 
around the word. 



80 STUDIES W LANGUAGE. 

Read the exercises given below upon one of 
the occasional studies, and assign as the lesson 
for the following day examples upon slates or 
practice paper, using the words in their varied 
meanings and relations. 

The letter may then be left, and the study 
carried on in the selections under the head of 
literature. 

The constant reference to the dictionary on 
the part of the teacher will not be lost in its in- 
fluence as an example for the class. Whenever 
it can be done to advantage, employ a pupil to 
find the place for you and to read the definition 
to you. 

Word Studies. 



I will watch for an opportunity. 

The cat is on the watch for a bird. 

It is my watch now. 

You have a watch ; make it as secure as you can. 

Have you a watch ? 

"Watch, lest ye fall into temptation. 

It was the third watch of a winter night. 

POST. 

Posts are set for a fence. 

Post no bills. 

This is the post of a sentinel. 

We were on the first post of our journey. 

Shall you be at the Post meeting? 

Did the letter come by post ? 

He died at his post. 



LITERATURE. 81 

WINCx. 

" O had I the wings of a bird ! " 

They that wait on the Lord shall mount up on wings, 
as eagles. 

We are on the wing again. 

If I take the wings of the morning and dwell in the 
uttermost parts of the sea. 

The pea and the bean have wing-petals, and the seed of 
the maple is winged. 

Under his wings shalt thou trust. 

The windmill has its wings spread. 

The Chorus of Flowers— Leigh Hunt 

[Letters and Lessons, page 17.] 

This exquisite poem belongs to every one who 
can be taught to care for it. Its moral value is 
greater even than its intellectual. 

The Rhythm is treated in the pupil's book. 
Require the class to express in curves the verse 
form, and the stanza, as taught in Book II. 

Pause in study upon the following words I 

We thread the earth in silence. 

In silence build our bowers. 

The teachers of the end of use. 

Scorn all duller taste. 

Its wall speaks loftier truth. 

Our outward life requires them not. 

Whether man or May-fly profit of the lalm. 

Even the terror, poison, hath its plea. 

Till the gold-cups overflow. 

The butterflies come aping those fine thieves. 



$2 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Bound our rifled tops. 
Human speech avails not. 

Who shall say the flowers dress not Heaven's own 
bowers? 

Let the interpretation of words be always the 
substitution of the simple for the difficult. 

QUESTIONS AND NOTES. 

In what lines is it said, We are appropriate everywhere 
— we give laughter for mourning — where we find charms 
and beauties we make way for their free exercise ? 

In what way do March winds open the way for the 
spring flowers? 

From what do the flowers and leaves derive their 
color? How may Heaven and Nature be said to color 
them to suit their tastes? In the next stanza useful use- 
lessness is named as the painter. Explain these personifi- 
cations. Red is always represented as a warm and white 
as a cold color. So the roses and lilies are set in contrast. 

Quote the line that expresses the thought that the re- 
turn of the flowers interrupts unhealthy thoughts, and 
calls out such as the mind held, but did not openly enjoy. 

The May-fly is an insect whose life is said to be but a 
single day in length. What force is there in coupling it 
with man ? 

How does the vegetable world profit both man and 
animal ? 

Enumerate examples of food and medicine. 

What are the " talking rooms " of the bee? and what 
are the cups that overflow for men? 

Have you seen Guido's painting of the Aurora, where 
Apollo is surrounded by the nine beautiful figures in hu- 
man form ? The implied comparison makes the central 
organs of a flower the Apollo, and the petals the attend- 
ants that serve him. " The Greek mountain " represents 



LIT ERA TURE.—FL WERS. 83 

the family of the gods, in the religion of Nature. The 
"sweet floor" represents the scenery of the heavenly 
world, corresponding to what we here call the ground. 



A Discourse of Flowers, and Hymn to the Flowers 
— Beecher. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 19 and 31.] 

Read and comment upon in manner similar 
to the preceding. 

In the particular study of words note the use 
of the following : 

If there was not another creature on earth. 

If they would but question such flowers. 

Generally there is a disposition to undervalue. 

If Nature set a price for her blossoms. 

The mullein — a brave plant. 

A homely enthusiasm. 

Grape blossoms do not appeal to the eye. 

Finest stroke — happiest hit {idioms). 

What kind of figure is it that calls the sunset a "blos- 
soming of the clouds " ? 

An expression of countenance. 

Do you recall smiling flowers? — shy, proud, and home- 
like ones? 

Note the enumeration of melodious sounds. (See 
page 8.) 

The " vibrations " refer us to the mode in which sound 
and light come to us, in movements of the atmosphere, or 
the ether which surrounds and fills everything. 

The Chorus, Discourse, and Hymn make a 
kind of Flower Service, or ceremony of worship. 
Commit the hymn for recitation. 



84 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Rhythm. — Let the study of the class lead to 
the statement that " The Hymn to the Flowers," 
page 31, is written in iambics, with three lines 
of five and one of two feet to the stanza. (See 
page 32.) 

The Boyhood of Benjamin Franklin, 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 33 and 10.] 

If but a single copy of the Life of Franklin 
can be had, make the opening chapters the class 
reading-book for a time, and write upon the board 
the topics best adapted to the exercises in com- 
position. 

When the material for work has been read 
and well digested, give the class an hour of school 
time for writing the first chapter of the sketch, 
that necessary questions may be asked to recall 
the facts. Exchange of papers in the class, with 
marginal crosses to mark points for correction, 
should precede the teacher's examination and the 
record of the work in the blank pages of the 
book. 



SECTION II. 

Conversation. — Equivalent Expression. Psalms cxvii 

and xviii. 
Literature. — The Daisy, Grass, Dandelion, and Bramble. 
Invention. — Early Manhood of Franklin. 

Equivalent Expression. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 2.] 

If work in this line is new to the teacher, 
she may see its beginnings in Book I, page 35, 
with notes in the corresponding section of this 
manual. 

The familiar lines of the first stanza of " Ex- 
celsior" may be intelligently, though somewhat 
awkwardly, expressed in exactly reverse order, 
as follows : 

The Latin word " excelsior " was the odd inscription 
upon a flag, which over an icy, stony way was borne by 
a young man as he passed through an Alpine town, in the 
deepening evening twilight. 

It is not to be supposed that a class will read- 
ily supply appropriate connections to thread to- 
gether the parts of this or other statements. To 



86 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

know that it can be done is a valuable point in 
language training ; to do it with aid is useful. 

The force of connecting words is kept in 
mind, as a review of the letters of Book II, and 
whatever there is in a class of aptitude for ex- 
pression is brought into healthful play. There 
is no better exercise in the whole field of lan- 
guage study, and the teacher will soon come to 
enjoy it no less than her class. 

STUDIES. 

1 The birds 2 fared ill, 3 both small and great ; 
4 They found B hardly 6 a friend 7 in all that crowd. 

It is not advisable to try to change " birds." 
" Fared ill " points to a sad, bad, unhappy, dis- 
astrous, or miserable condition. " Both small 
and great " covers the entire tribe. " They 
found " may be replaced by " There appeared to 
be," and u scarcely " will serve for " hardly." 
" A friend " in such a case is an advocate, a 
protector, a well-wisher, a sympathizer, or one 
who favors; and for "all that crowd" we may 
substitute " the entire company or gathering." 

Throwing aside the words and expressing 
the sentiment with no reference to them, is 
called recasting the thought, from an implied 
comparison with the process of casting metals. 
In this way a number of free translations may 
be made. 

The sympathy of the meeting was not in their favor. 



LITERATURE.— THE DAISY. 87 

With scarcely an exception the entire race of birds was 
denounced. 

A higher meaning than Babylon could boast speaks 
from the meanest window-plant that is treasured in the 
homes of a crowded town. 

See page 31 for other examples of Equivalent 
Expression. Any book of Metrical Psalms and 
Hymns will further illustrate this kind of study. 



The Daisy. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 20.] 

BUKNS'S DAISY. 

Suppose the plowman had not been a poet, 
yet had lacked nothing of the gentle sympathy 
that inspired the verses. The thought would have 
taken a homelier form, such as the following : 

This is an evil hour for you, little flower. It is not in 
my power to spare you from being torn from the earth 
and crushed among the stubble. 

And, when the blow falls, it will not be the weight of 
your sweet neighbor, the lark, bending your stem as he 
mounts to hail the dawn. 

Patiently and cheerfully you have borne the cold bit- 
ing winds and storms of the north when first your slender 
form raised itself from the earth ; in modest content you 
have blossomed outside the shelter and protection of gar- 
den walls, and without praise or companionship you have 
spread your white mantle with its crimson tips to the sun 
in modest beauty ; but now the end has come, and you 
must perish before the plowshare, and lie low in the 
ground. 



88 S TUDIES IN LANG FA GK 

An occasional paraphrase made for the class 
will encourage their labors in the same direction. 
It is unwise to require complete paraphrases from 
pupils. A line here or there, a stanza or two, 
that present no special difficulties, will fall to 
them, while the teacher's part will be to throw 
light upon an obscure passage, by a simpler, if 
more commonplace, rendering. 

Wordsworth's daisy. 

This second Daisy-study shows the different 
thoughts suggested by the same object. Quote 
also Montgomery's " There is a flower, a little 
flower, with silver crest and sparkling eye," 
and others, if you know them, that are less 
familiar. Both these poems are written in iam- 
bic verse. Repeat a line of each to show the 
equal length of lines, and call upon the pupils to 
study out the difference in the stanzas of the two. 

Make this lesson a review of metaphor and 
simile, as taught in Letters Fourteen and Fif- 
teen, Book II. 

The Yoice of the Grass. 

This may be passed with a single reading. 
Its meaning will be taken at sight, and the 
rhythm is too abrupt and irregular for a model. 

The beautiful tribute to the grass by Ruskin 
presents in most finished language an example of 
description. 



LITERATURE. 89 

To the Dandelion— J. R. Lowell. 

The poems and studies of the preceding les- 
sons have come to us from across the ocean. 
The present lesson is from one of our leading 
American poets. The English daisy is a finer 
and more highly prized plant than our common 
field daisy, but the dandelion is our own plant. 

Make a word study by calling attention to the 
use of the following words and phrases : 

Compare "beside the way " with by the wayside. 
Explain the metaphor in " fringing with harmless 
gold,:' 

The choice of buccaneers as a name for the 
children rests upon their ruthless way of pulling 
dandelions, as if whatever they saw was a prize 
for their taking. 

What is meant by " God's value " ? 

Quote the lines that refer to heart-seeing. 

How is the bee pictured by a single word % 

Enumerate the memory-pictures brought to 
the poet's mind by the sight of the flower. 

What is meant by " peers " ? 

Compare the prodigality of Nature in the 
dandelion with that of the apple-tree in the " Dis- 
course of Flowers." 

The Bramble-flower. 

The subject of this poem is the wild raspberry. 
It belongs to the Rose family. The primrose, 



90 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

hawthorn, and violet are spring flowers, the 
bramble comes later. What indicates that the 
poet has in mind a parallel between the seasons 
of the year and human life ? 

Describe the rhythm, the verse, and the stan- 
za form ? 



SECTION III. 

Conversation. — Proverbs. 

Literature. — The Almond Blossom. Daffodil. Willow. 

Palm Tree. Gentian and Ehodora. 
Invention. — Franklin in Public Life in Philadelphia. 

Proverbs. 

THEIR origin. 

Each proverb was the original saying of some 
person, and would have ended with him had it 
not seemed to others a clear way of expressing a 
general truth or principle. One after another 
people quoted it, and thus it came into general 
use. 

Example : A small spark may kindle a great 
fire ; or, A little leak will sink a ship. 

The occasion for using these proverbs is the 
wish to express the general truth that an appar- 
ently small circumstance may effect serious con- 
sequences. 

If the circumstance is an act, the first is the 
appropriate proverb ; if a waste, or neglect, the 
second is the better comparison. 

If the class do not readily respond to the 



92 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

questions upon the interpretation of proverbs, 
help them at first by giving the interpretation, 
and letting them identify with it the particular 
proverb that seems most appropriate. 

Examples: 1. Before entering upon an undertaking, 
consider whether your means are sufficient for complet- 
ing it. 

2. If you will not yield to reason, you may be com- 
pelled by necessity. 

3. Fit yourself for good service and you will not need 
to remain idle. 

4. It is not a sign of skill to complain of your oppor- 
tunities and materials. 

5. Perseverance will conquer great difficulties. 

6. Watch against evil while you are working for good. 

7. Time and effort are needful for success. 

" Poor Richard's Almanac," by Franklin, con- 
tains a large collection of practical proverbs re- 
lating to wisdom in every-day life. Quotations 
from it will be found in the books which pupils 
will read in preparation for writing a sketch of 
his life. 

The Study of Poems. 
[Letters and Lessons, pages 22-24.] 

" The Almond Blossom " and " The Willow " 
are written in trochaic verse, " The Palm Tree '' 
in iambics and anapests, and the remaining poems 
of this section in iambics. 

The length of lines in the different poems 
may be shown by counting and by scanning. 



LITER A TUEE.— POEMS. 93 



1. One two, one two, one two, one, 
One two, one two, one two, one. 

2. 0n<? two, one two, ow<? two, one two, 
6>;ie two, <me two, one two, one. 

3. One two, one taw, one two, one two, 

One two three, one tao, one two three one two, 
One two, one two three, one two three one two. 

Match the above movements to the first lines 
of the poems to which they are appropriate. 

Which of the poems are arranged in two, 
three, four, six, and eight lines to the stanza? 

QUESTIONS AND NOTES. 

The almond-tree in early spring may be compared with 
the peach-tree of our own land, whose pink blossoms pre- 
cede its leaves. 

Call attention to the namings of the flower in the 
first two couplets. Question upon tlie fitness of the 
word "birthday." After the naming comes the com- 
parison with other blossoms. Which couplets contain 
it? 

Question upon cruel, sturdy, clouding, bravest, bough. 

What fact of the flower is implied in the line, " With 
a bee in every bell " ? 

The daffodil of Wordsworth's poem is the same as the 
narcissus of the " Sorrow of Demeter," page 28, and the 
daffadowndilly of English children's delight. 

To what class of words do the following belong : wan- 
dered, floats, saw, fluttering, dancing ? 

Each of the poems of this section contains a lesson, 
and illustrates a virtue or truth. Study each to find its 
teaching. Contrast "The Almond Blossom" with "The 



94 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Gentian"; "The Dandelion 1 ' of the last section with 
"The Palm Tree." 

To what does " it " refer in the first line of " The Palm- 
tree " ? What is it the object of the poem to show ? 

In " The Fringed Gentian " find a word-picture for 
spring, and one for autumn. What time is referred to in 
the first word of the fourth stanza? Find a double com- 
parison in the use of fringes, first for real eyelashes, and 
then for the fringed lids of the half-closed flower. 

The scene of " The Rhodora " is Concord, Mass. State 
the references in our, thee, thou, his, them, I, my, me, their, 
its. 

The " purple " of the rhodora is a deep, rich red. The 
poet uses the word in its very old meaning for any intense 
red except scarlet. " Sages " are wise and venerable peo- 
ple who^eek to know causes and reasons. 

Trace the comparisons stated or implied in "coat of 
gold," " broideries," " lonely as a cloud," " the stars," 
" sprightly dance," "dances," "free arms," " willing smile," 
" to please the desert." 



Franklin as a Useful Citizen. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 33 and 10.] 

Dwell in class exercises upon this stage of 
Franklin's life, especially upon the spirit of help- 
fulness which prompted his acts, and his prepara- 
tion by means of them for more conspicuous use- 
fulness in higher fields of service afterward. 
This part of the biography is probably the most 
useful one for the class to study as an example 
to emulate. 

One section of a class might be detailed to 



INVENTION. 95 

relate the account of Franklin as the author of 
" Poor Richard's Almanac." 

Another, to describe the clubs for mutual im- 
provement which were organized by him. 

A third might speak of his relation to the 
improvements in the city where he lived. 

A fourth, of his inventive talent. 

By dividing the work in this way, more read- 
ing can be brought into a short time, and each 
section of the class is made responsible for a part 
upon which they are to instruct the remainder of 
the class. 

The written abstracts follow the oral recita- 
tions. 



SECTION IY. 

Conversation. — Description and Narration. 
Literature. — The Moss Rose. A Forest Hymn. 
Invention. — Franklin as an Ambassador. 

Description and Narration. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 6.] 

It is the object of this letter to prepare pupils 
for the two abstracts of Part Third, for the 
study of descriptive and narrative literature, and 
for such exercises in general description and enu- 
meration, oral or written, as may be appropriate 
to their years. 

Let it be impressed upon their minds that 
efforts of this kind, more or less fragmentary in 
character, are attempted by them in conversation 
nearly every day, and that it is the object of 
school training to enable them to do well what 
they are sure to want to do. 

It is sufficient for present needs to read the 
letter, pausing upon each paragraph, or example, 
to question upon its meaning. 



CONVERSATION. 97 

The Moss Rose. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 24.] 

The analysis of this lesson can be carried but 
a little way, but it affords to a gradually growing 
power its most natural exercise. Slide lightly 
over a word or phrase whose explanation is diffi- 
cult, or couple it with what immediately follows 
or precedes. 

The following will show a sufficient analysis 
for the remainder of the poem : 

The angel — awaking — from light repose — whispered — 
to the rose. 

What pictures the angel's condition ? 

What states his act ? 

Go on to tell what he whispered. 

O fondest object of my care — found (to be) still fairest 
—where — all (all what?) are fair. 

What does " fair " describe ? 

What " fondest " and what " fairest " ? 

Ask — what thou wilt (ask)— it— is granted (to) thee — 
for — the sweet shade— thou — givest (to) me. 

Then— the rose — (with deepened glow)— said — bestow 
— on me — another grace. 

What docs "with deepened glow" describe? 

The spirit paused — in silent thought. 

What was the thought ? 

What grace was there (that) the flower had not (al- 
ready) (equivalent to did not have). 
5 



98 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

It was but (only) (for) a moment. The angel throws 
(what?) a veil (what kind?) — of moss (where?) over the 
rose — and — could (there) a flower exceed (excel) that rose 
(when) robed— in — Nature's— simplest — weed. 



A Forest Hymn— Bryant. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 25.] 

SPECIMEN" LESSON — MEANINGS OF WOKDS. 

Temples — places for divine worship. 

Architrave — the ornamental work at the head 
of a column or pillar. 

Vault — the arch that the column supports. 

To gather and roll bach — refers to the echo- 
ing or acoustic effects sought in building churches 
or halls for music or for public speaking. 

OFFICE OF WOEDS. 

What relation is shown by " ere," twice used 
in the first sentence? state the references made 
by "he," "me," and "his." 

Explain "amid," in the sixth line. 

The use of "the" before "cool and silence" 
shows that they name a place. It is a case of 
naming from a quality. (See Letter One.) 

What is the effect of "thrice" before "hap- 
py " ? and to what does " happy " belong? 

Explain the use of "mightiest." 

Ask and answer the questions what? and 
where? after " offer." 



LITERATURE.— A FOREST HYMN. 99 

EQUIVALENT EXPRESSION. 

Line 24th. Human skill and grandeur can 
claim here no praise for the glory of shadowy 
arches and winding passages. The hand of man 
has left untouched this finished, perfect work of 
God. 

Line 35th. This is a place of perpetual praise ; 
In the peace which gives thee pleasure, Nature 
here delights in thy abiding. 



This poem is written in blank verse, or lines 
that do not rhyme. The meter is iambic, and 
the lines are five metrical feet in length. 

Go on in the study of the poem, dwelling 
upon each sentence for one or more of the above- 
named forms of study. The object of study 
is to make the thought intelligent and the ex- 
pression enjoyable. In subsequent readings by 
the pupils let each read a single sentence as 
marked by the period. Thus divided, the appre- 
hension of its meaning will not be difficult. 

Franklin in Public Life. 

Picture vividly the time in which Franklin 
began to act as a statesman in the cause of the 
colonists. Any history of our country will con- 
tain a condensed account of the wrongs which 
sent him to England, and the study of a biogra- 



100 STUDIES JJV LANGUAGE. 

phy will tell what was his especial service pre- 
vious to the Revolution. 

Writing will be made more easy and more 
successful if confined to a few topics which have 
been discussed in the class. Even if the teacher 
should decide upon the material and its arrange- 
ment, the language will still be the effort of the 
class. 



SECTION Y. 

Conversation. — Word Study. 

Literature. — Allusions. Sorrow of Demeter. 

Invention. — My Home. 

Word-Making". 

[Letters and Lessons, page 11.] 

Raising questions and exciting curiosity and 
interest are factors in a teacher's work of equal 
importance with the communication of knowl- 
edge. The English language as now spoJcen did 
not exist a thousand years ago — how, then, came 
it into existence if every generation of children 
learned to speak like their parents, and taught 
their children in turn to speak in their way % 

A picture of the process is perhaps the best 
means of teaching the value of carefulness and 
correctness, since a language may grow better or 
poorer, but must change as the years go on. 

Here is an example which can not fail to be 
understood. Among a half dozen little children 
one may be found who calls its mother " mam'- 
ma," others who say " ma'-ma," and others who 
pronounce the word as if it were spelled " mum'- 
ma." Say, in an emphatic way, " I'll tell mam- 



102 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

ma if you do not stop," using each of the three 
ways. Now suppose that for fifty years these 
three pronunciations should continue. West of 
the Mississippi we will suppose the first to be the 
only one in use ; in the South, the second ; and 
in New England, the third ; and we will further 
suppose that, as in old times, people went very 
little away from their homes, and that there were 
few if any printed books. 

If other words had undergone similar changes 
or mispronunciations, at the end of the fifty years 
there would be three languages, or, at least, dia- 
lects, instead of one, in the United States ; and, if 
they were to be newly written, the spelling would 
be different. 

German and English have many words as 
much alike as are the three forms for " mamma." 

The way, then, to make our language grow 
better where it is not perfect, and remain what 
it is in most respects, must be for each section 
of our country, every city, town, and village, to 
adopt and use the best forms of speech, to keep 
up the practice of writing and reading books and 
papers, to mingle freely with each other, and to 
train the organs of speech so as to utter words 
and sentences distinctly. 

The words in " graph" on page 11, are mani- 
festly different from the words which make the 
body of our speech, as it is shown on the page. 
Tell the class of the Saxons, the Celts, the Nor- 



CONVERSATION: WORD-MAKING. 103 

mans, the Angles, the Danes, and others, who at 
different times made conquests in England, and 
lived there. Some of these are among the most 
ancient of peoples, and have no record telling 
when either themselves or their language came 
into being. Many of our words have come down 
from them, but subject to changes all the time, 
and especially before the time when books were 
much in use, so that we both pronounce and 
spell them differently. 

To trace words back through all their changes, 
by means of old books and manuscripts, is like 
following a river to its source. The dictionaries 
gather a great deal of the knowledge that has 
been thus obtained. 

This amount of information, even, may excite 
interest in the study of words, and determine to 
an extent the future predilections of pupils. It 
seems to be the duty of a teacher to make all 
study winning, and then to leave her classes to 
find their own special tastes. 

As an example for the teacher's use, apart 
from the pupils' books, we select the Latin facio, 
I make, or do, fio and fieri, to be made, and 
the French faire, to make ; also, facies, the face, 
and facilis, easily made. From these have come 
the following : 

Fact, something stated as done or made. 
factor, one who does or makes. 



104 S T UDIE8 IN LANG UA GE. 

factory, a place for doing. 

manufacture, making by hand (manus). 
facile, easily made, or doing easily. 
faculty, power or skill to do. 

benefactor, a well-doer. 

malefactor, an ill-doer. 

satisfactory, doing sufficiently. 

The change is slight to fect, w T hich gives — 
affect, to act upon, as one's feelings. 
affection, an acting with or upon in love. 
disaffection, not done in love. 
perfection, done to the end, or fully. 
imperfection, not fully done. 
infection, a doing in, as a taint. 
effect, to do thoroughly. 
confection, a made sweetmeat. 

Face, the countenance, the part that shows the 

making or doing. 
efface, to blot out. 
deface, to disfigure. 
surface, the outer part. 
facet, a little face. 
fashion, an appearance. 
fashion, as a word of action, meaning to 

make in the artistic sense. 
facial, belonging to the face. 

Then, by slight change, from ficial w r e have 
artificial, official, officious, efficient, superficial, 
proficient, sufficient, deficient. 



CONVERSATION: WORD-MAKING. 105 

The word-ending ft comes from the same 
root, and enters into a large class of words — 

purify, to make pure. 

justify, to make just. 
Glorify, satisfy, fortify, clarify, rarefy, magnify, 
dignify, horrify, simplify, ossify, beautify. 

Let the pupils think of other words that might have 
been made, if there had been occasion. For example, if 
we had not had the better word offend, we might have 
made the word angrify, which only sounds strange be- 
cause we never heard it used. 



Historical and Mythical Allusions. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 27.] 

The special object in introducing this subject 
at this time is that the teacher may use it as a 
means of widening the general information of 
pupils. An allusion that is not understood is 
like a phrase from a foreign tongue; we are 
supposed to know its meaning, and are embar- 
rassed that we do not. The ounce of prevention 
is taken in careful reading; the cure comes in 
retaining in memory the word or phrase that we 
may learn its meaning. The allusions that come 
into our reading may generally be easily traced. 
In the studies of the last section the story of 
Saul and David, in the book of Kings, the ac- 
count of the slaughter of St. Bartholomew's day, 
and the cruelty of Herod, are examples of easy 



106 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

reference. All boys and girls should look for- 
ward to association with educated people as they 
move on to mature life, and reflect that to en- 
joy association with them they must know, to 
an extent, the same things. The lines of read- 
ing should be selected with reference to this 
among other motives, and the teacher's earnest 
care, while it may not effect all that might be 
desired, will yet have great weight in modifying 
natural tastes. 

The Sorrow of Demeter. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 28.] 

This is one of the most familiar of mythical 
stories. It carries the literature and religion of 
a people back into a period of which history has 
no other record. All modern literature is full 
of references to this prehistoric stage, and lan- 
guages can all be traced to it. 

The story of Persephone is beautifully told 
in verse by Miss Ingelow. It is too long to in- 
sert here, but no better study could be taken than 
the reading by the teacher of verses from it, as 
it matches this prose story. 

EXAMPLES. 

Persephone's farewell cry. 

O light, light, light ! she cries, farewell, 
The coal-black horses wait for me. 

O shade of shades, where must I dwell, 
Demeter, mother, far from thee? 



LITERATURE.— DEMETER. 107 

Demeter's sorrow. 

My life, immortal though it be, 

Is naught, she cries, for want of thee, 

Persephone, Persephone ! 

The voice that summons her back. 
Thou Lord of Hades, hear, 
And let Demeter's daughter go. 
The tender corn upon the lea 
Droops, in her goddess gloom, when she 
Cries for her lost Persephone. 

Persephone's condition. 

And doth our daylight dazzle thee, 
My love, my child, Persephone ? 

What moved thee, daughter, to forsake 
Thy fellow -maids that fatal morn? 

Her lips reply without her will, 

As one addressed who slumbereth still, 

"The daffodil, the daffodil! " 



SECTION VI. 

Conversation. — Prefixes and Suffixes. 
Liteeatuee. — Poems of War. Hymns. 
Invention. — My Home. 

Prefixes and Suffixes. 

[Letters and Lessons, pages 14, 15.] 

The point of the two letters of this section is 
the composite character of most words. Certain 
parts, generally either at the beginning or end 
of the word, seem to have attached themselves 
to the body of the word to affect its relation to 
other words or to influence somewhat its mean- 
ing. A review of the words which indicated 
relation or added circumstance will show that 
these parts of words (particles) have a similar 
use. 

It should also be shown that, in ceasing to 
become separate words, these helping particles 
have lost in some cases their special character. 
For example : 

Adhere means literally to stick to, as in the 
forms adhesive : but we used the word " to " after 



CON VERSA TIOK— PREFIXES. \ 09 

it, to say, " The moss adheres to the rock," as if 
to were not a part of the word itself in ad. 

AN EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF PREFIXES. 

The Latin prefix ad, meaning to, or with, 
has changed its consonant ending whenever its 
sound did not easily unite with the root to 
which it was joined. Write the following ex- 
amples, with their literal meaning; then give 
some phrase or sentence, showing the use of 
each: 

Accept, to take to one's self. 
Access, a coming to. 
Accommodate, to adapt to. 
Accord, to agree to or with. 
Accost, to speak to. 
Accumulate, to add to. 
Adduce, to lead to or from. 
Adhere, to cleave to. 
Adjacent, lying near to. 
Admire, to wonder at. 
Aggrieve, to give pain to. 
Ally, to bind to. 
Annex, to tie to. 
Append, to hang to. 
Ascend, to mount to. 
Attract, to draw to. 
Arrive, to come to. 
Attest, to bear witness to. 



HO STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

Exercises of similar kind can be easily gath- 
ered, for any prefix, from the dictionary. 



Distinguish, in connection with this lesson, 
between the literal and the customary meaning. 
The latter is often a weakened form of the latter, 
and sometimes a limitation of its use to a particu- 
lar form. 

" Full " is a strong word, but the suffix " ful " 
may or may not be, according to people's use of 
the words to which it is appended ; for example, 
beautiful may mean full of beauty, or simply 
having beauty. 

For the changing of orthography in adding 
particles to root w T ords, the teacher is referred to 
the current spelling-books. 

Incident of the French Camp— Robert Browning. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 30.] 

The Lesson. — A prose paraphrase. 

The Forced Recruit at Solferino— Mrs. Browning. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 30.] 

The Lesson. — Tell the story of this young 
patriot with no reference to the words of the 
poem. 



LITERATURE. \\\ 

EXPLANATORY NOTES. 

The battle referred to was between the Aus- 
trians and the French and Sardinians. It oc- 
curred in 1859. The Austrians were defeated, 
and the Treaty of Villa Franca followed imme- 
diately, by which a number of Italian states 
were freed from Austrian rule. Venetia, how- 
ever, was held until 1866, when it too became a 
part of the kingdom of Italy. 

The sympathy of the Venetians was with the 
cause of Italy. They hoped to be liberated in 
1859, though obliged to furnish troops for Aus- 
tria to use in the attempt to conquer and gain 
control in Sardinia. The conduct of the hero of 
the poem is intended to express the sentiment 
of all the Venetian soldiers, thus compelled to 
nght against their own people. 

Admiral Stewart. Old Ironsides— Stedman. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 30.] 

The " Ironsides " is the old frigate Constitu- 
tion, the most celebrated of American war ves- 
sels. It was the proposition to give up the vessel 
and sell its hulk for relics, etc., that called out 
from Oliver Wendell Holmes the protest begin- 
ning — 

"Ay, tear her tattered ensign down." 

Admiral Stewart, for the deed here pictured, 
received the thanks of Congress, a medal of 



112 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

honor, and the praise of a whole country. " Iron- 
sides " was spared until 1881 as a monument of 
the renown she had won. 

God moves in a Mysterious Way— Gowper. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 31.] 

The Lesson. — Study the rhythm and commit 
the poem for recitation. 

The Spacious Firmament on High. 

Analysis: Study the poem for answers to 
the following questions : 

What proclaim ? — proclaim what ? 

What does display ? — does display what ? 

What publishes ? — publishes what ? 

What takes up?— takes up what ? 

What repeats % — repeats what % 

What confirm ? — confirm what ? 

What spread ? — spread what ? 

What utter i— utter what'? 

Does display — (when ?). 

Publishes — (to whom ?). 

Takes up — (when ?). 

Eepeats — (to whom ?) (when ?). 

Confirm — (when ?) (how ?). 

Spread — (where ?). 

Rejoice — (where ?). 

Utter— (where ?). 

Singing — (when ?) (what ?). 



LITERATURE. 113 

Quote the words which describe (that is, an- 
swer the question " What kind ? "), in the fol- 
lowing cases : " firmament," " sky," " heavens," 
"frame," "original," "sun," "hand," "shades," 
"tall," "earth," "silence," "ball," "voice or 
sound," "orbs," "voice." 

A Sketch of the History of My Home. 

[See page 10, Letters and Lessons.] 



BOOK IV. 



Conversation. The Study of Words and Sentences 

The Letters of Book IV review the special 
features of the earlier books, and in addition dis- 
criminate the subject, predicate, and modifiers, as 
sentence members, and treat of the three kinds of 
sentences. 

It may seem that the naming of the Parts of 
Speech might be easily taught and that they 
would be useful as an aid in analysis. The sub- 
stitution of noun for name, adjective for qual- 
ity, or descriptive word, verb for act or condi- 
tion, preposition for relation, conjunction for 
connection, pronoun for reference, and adverb 
for answers to the questions how, when, where, 
how much, etc., following the verb, would, with- 
out doubt, be easy enough at any time, but as a 
useful scheme for showing the uses of words in 
ordinary discourse it would be found insufficient 
whenever the teacher turned from the picked 



CONVERSA TION.— SENTENCES. \ 15 

sentences of grammar to the paragraphs of the 
reader. 

Then the old method of presenting every 
anomaly of language, with exceptions to every 
rule, and gathered examples of every peculiar 
form, must be resorted to, and language study is 
thrown into disrepute before the beautiful and 
logical relations of sentence members have been 
at all appreciated. 

SPECIMEN LESSON. 

The following model will illustrate the prin- 
ciples and recommendations for which these books 
are wrought : 

" And swinging a hand-breadth lower down 
Is a modest shelf of books." 

This is a couplet from Miss Phoebe Cary. Of 
what does she speak ? A shelf. 

And what does she say (predicate) of the 
shelf ? Is swinging. 

What is told by a a hand -breadth lower 
down " % Where it swings. 

The general analysis having been made, we 
pass on to the office of the words : 

"&" points to a particular shelf of books. 
" modest " describes the same. 
" shelf " is the general name for a raised platform 
for holding any objects or utensils. It is 



116 ST UDIES IN LANG UA GE. 

limited to a particular use here by the words 

which join it. 
" books " joined in relation to shelf by 
" of " limits the use of the word, and describes 

the appearance of this shelf, by showing for 

what it is designed. 
"is swinging "states the fact which the whole 

sentence suggests. 
" down " shows that the swinging of the shelf is 

below something, i. e., tells where. 
"lower" compares the height with something 

above the shelf (" the settler's rifle "). 
" a hand-breadth " measures the distance down. 

What such analysis loses in grammatical de- 
finites, it more than gains in other language 
values. 

In the more general method here pursued, 
the attention is given primarily to the thought ; 
the words being taken singly, or in phrases, ac- 
cording to the measure of difficulty, or the capa- 
bilities of pupils, and defined in their usage to 
express some phase of the thought. 

The ability to transpose sentences, and to 
substitute equivalent forms for any whose office 
is doubtful, removes half the later difficulties of 
parsing ; and the " doctrine of speech-part-ship " 
can then be rested where it belongs — on a clear 
apprehension of the use of words in sentences — 
as it could not if the classification must be made 



CON VERSA TION.— WORDS. 1 1 7 

by pupils of ten years who have had no training 
in general analysis. 

If these reasons fail to convince the teacher, 
no difficulty will be found in giving names to 
classes of words, while pursuing in general the 
policy of these lessons. 

In any case, the avoidance of so detailed an 
analysis as to introduce doubtful or anomalous 
grammatical points is to be preferred to the old 
plan of studying language by means of picked 
sentences, taken out of their pertinent and nat- 
ural connection in actual discourse. 

WORDS DEFINED BY USAGE. 

The exercise of inferring the meaning of a 
word from its use in a particular sentence, whose 
general meaning is, understood, is an application 
of the same principle of induction that is the 
basis of all knowledge. 

I do not know that all grass is green, except 
as I infer it from the fact that I have never seen 
other than green grass, nor heard of any of a 
different color. 

The pupil has a general idea of the meaning 
of " worthless," but a study of its use in the two 
examples of page 2 (L. and L.) will show that 
different shades of meaning attach to it in dif- 
ferent connections. 

" He loved my worthless rhymes, and, like a friend, 
Would always find out something to commend." 



118 STUDIES IN LANG UA GE. 

The fact that the worthless rhymes were loved, 
that they had in them anything worthy of com- 
mendation, shows that worthless is not here used 
in its strongest sense, but only for a modest esti- 
mate of the genius shown in the verses. The 
same word used before " fellow " in the last 
example, " a worthless fellow," means not only 
without value, but positively harmful in influ- 
ence and social relations. 

The study of the sentence lights the meaning 
of the words, and the words when studied shed 
new luster upon the thought. 

The Two Principal Sentence Members, Subject and 
Predicate. 

Poetry and elevated prose differ from ordi- 
nary writing in choosing wolrds and expressions 
that will give greatest pleasure. The diction is 
generally more simple, though less commonplace. 
Involved sentences are rarely used, epithets take 
the place of long descriptions, and thoughts 
are expressed in their most incisive form. It 
therefore happens naturally that the examples 
of distinctly marked sentences containing a 
single subject and predicate, with few added 
words, are to be sought in poetry rather than in 
prose. 

For the necessary practice in teaching the 
relation of these two terms, see " The Yoice of 
Spring," page 15, stanzas three and five, where 



CON VERSA TIOX.- MODIFIERS. 119 

each line is a distinct clause ; also " March," and 
sentences from " Spring," page 16. 

INCIDENTAL TEACHING. 

In the sentences beginning " There's joy " and " There's 
life," the subjects proper would be joy and life, as if 
the poet had said, "Joy is on the mountain" ; but, as that 
would carry a slightly different meaning, it is customary 
to analyze the sentence as it is, calling "there" the 
subject. 

In the Song of the Summer Winds, find the 
predicates that have u we" for their subject. 

Modifiers. 

The idea of the effect which words may have 
upon each other was first illustrated in " Picture 
Phrases," Letter Four, Book I ; if the teaching 
here given is not found to be sufficiently explicit, 
go back to that letter, and recall its teachings by 
repeating them. 

Use especially such forms of direction as the 
following : 

Modify the general word walk, so as to make 
it a name for the path to the gardener's cottage 
in the poem of this letter. 

Modify the word walls, to make the picture 
of Dovecote Mill. 

Modify the word eyes, to limit its application 
to those of the gardener. 

Modify the word face, first to stand for 



1 20 ST UDIE8 ffl LANG UA GE. 

that of the miller, and then for that of his 
young son. 

To modify means literally to make (-fy) according to a 
mode, that is, to alter to suit a need. Qualify has a similar 
derivation, to make " such " [qualis], that is, such as is re- 
quired or wished. Following out this thought, turn to 
page 18 [L. and L.], and modify or qualify " days " to make 
the word name especially autumn days. Do the same 
with "winds," "woods," and "meadows." 

How is "hollows" modified to make it stand for those 
of a particular place — " gust," to make a particular kind — 
"tread," to indicate the one the poet has in mind. 

Without specifying further exercises, the 
author commends this intensifying of meaning 
wherever in poem-study it is practicable. The 
mind is detained upon an idea by this means till 
it lias taken an account of its scope, a by no 
means unnecessary aid in case of careless, volatile 
readers. 

Note in "Indian Summer," page 18, how 
much would be lost if " hue," " winds," " grass," 
" blushes," " nuts," " tocsin," " squirrels," 
"nights," "whiteness," "maze," "tread," 
"sleep," "winter," "pearls," "heart," "tree," 
" bee," " glee," " bluebirds," " things," and " by 
and by " were taken in vague generalness with- 
out the particularizing of their use by an ex- 
pression of some especially appropriate quality, 
or mark, that is indicated by the modifying 
word. 

It is by such analyses that the beauties of litera- 



THE G A ED EXE IV S COT. 121 

ture are made to appear. After such word study 
this poem will be read aloud with more evident 
appreciation. Many a teacher will wish she had 
had early training herself in this line of culture, 
so as to be now lifted into higher planes of 
reading and study. She may earn the grati- 
tude of her pupils by letting them profit by 
her regrets in her greater efforts to improve 
their tastes. 

" Sheltering vines," "bush of green," etc., are 
cases where there is less of limitation in the term 
than of the emphasizing of some quality. Each 
instance has its own lesson which the judgment 
of the teacher will recognize. The teaching will 
close with a single example, showing how appro- 
priate passages anywhere may be treated. 

The Gardener's Cot. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 4.] 

SPECIMEN LESSON. 

A narrow graveled walk, bordered by early 
and late roses (5th stanza), led straight from the 
gate up to the rustic door. 

The subject of " led " is the word " walk," 
the general name for a foot-path. 
" a " makes it particular. 

" narrow and graveled " describe it, as also does 
" bordered by early and late roses." 

[Note that all other possible kinds of walk are excluded.'] 
6 



1-22 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

" led " is the predicate word. It is the office of 
" a walk " to lead somewhere. It is here 
stated that this one did. 

" straight " tells how the walk led and excludes 
other possible ways. 

" from the gate " modifies the leading by telling 
where it began, and what relation there was 
between gate and walk. 

" rustic " pictures the gate vividly and excludes 
from the mind other kinds of walk. 

" up " implies a rising way, a manner in the 
leading. 

" to the door " the direction and end of the lead- 
ing. 
Summary : The subject has four, and the 

predicate four modifications. 

8th and 9th Stanzas. 

" Sight " is the subject. " Is " is the predi- 
cate. It is incomplete without Betty. 

"When all is done" is a parenthetical sen- 
tence not much related to the rest. 

" Sight " is one of the most general of words. 
It is limited here by " the " and " prettiest," which 
precede it. 

Prettiest implies a comparison with other 
sights ; the two lines following contain a sentence 
(or clause) extending the use of sight in its wide- 
ness to all that either physical or mental seeing 
can embrace, so increasing the force of the par- 



KINDS OF SENTENCE. 123 

ticular one marked here by " the " and " pret- 
tiest." 

The two lines of the 9th stanza still further 
emphasize the " sight " in its beauty, the first by 
referring to all that one may ever have seen, and 
the second by claiming that memory will hold 
the sight (picture) in the future. All the fore- 
going clusters about the single word " sight " to 
make its prettiness a vivid picture. 

The predicate, besides the word Betty, modi- 
fied by " little," has a name for her — " pet " — 
limited by " gardener's " and " the." 

Kinds of Sentence. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 5.] 

The Statement is so much more common 
than the Question or Command that it is usu- 
ally accepted as the sentence proper, the other 
two being variations of it. Thus the inter- 
rogative sentence is said to be a statement 
put in the form of a doubt, and only to dif- 
fer from the assertion as a negative sentence 
differs from a positive. 

Thus : 1. It is the palm. 

2. Is it the palm ? 

3. It is not the palm. 

In all these cases the subject is " it," the 
predicate " is," completed by palm. 

The second kind is a statement addressed to a 



124 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

real or imagined person, and the predicate speaks 
to instead of about the subject, as a matter of 
course. 

Classify the following examples : 

" Come with me through the orchard lot." 
" Come forth, O ye children of ■ gladness, 

come ! " 

" God shield ye, heralds of the spring." 
" And what is so rare as a day in June ? " 
" The gloomy winter — who is he % " 
" But who the melodies of morn can tell ? " 
" Curl the still waters, bright with stars." 
" Swiftly walk over the western wave, spirit 

of night ! " 

" Come, see the north wind's masonry ! " 
" Let not the silver lily pine." 
" Make way for Liberty ! " 

Contracted Sentences. 

The same argument that makes a place for 
the pronoun holds for contractions when they do 
not obscure the sense. Young pupils, however, 
should always be able to give the complete form 
as a protection against incorrect abbreviation, 
except in cases of plainly idiomatic expression 
where amplification would be clumsy and diffi- 
cult. 

It will be sufficient for present teaching to 
dwell upon such forms as come in the way of 



CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 125 

the lessons. On page 16 — " Spring " — the excla- 
mations in the 4th and 7th paragraphs, to become 
sentences, require both a subject and a predicate 
(there is). The use of them, however, adds no 
new idea, and in an elevated style their omission 
gives added force. 

In the same selection find predicates for 
" scenery " and " sap," and subjects for " pull," 
" blow," and " lies awake." 

Supply the omission in 
" He sings to the wide world, and she to her 
nest." 
" The time hath laid his mantle by 
Of wind, and rain, and icy chill, 
And dons a rich embroidery," etc. 
" Small clouds are sailing, 
Blue sky prevailing." 
Count the subjects and the predicates in 
the last stanza of "The Gardener's Cot," on 
page 5. 

Make separate sentences for the compounded 
predicate in the last two lines of the stanza : 
" And little Betty will say to you 
That he is good and brave and true, 
And the wisest boy you ever knew." 



126 STUDIES IN LANG UA GE. 

Review Lessons upon Words. 

[Letters and Lessons, Letter Twenty-eight, page 7.] 

KINDS OF WORDS. 

Name ten of each of the following natural or 
political divisions or features of the world in 
which we live : 

1. Seas, bays, gulfs, straits. 

2. Continents or islands, peninsulas, capes. 

3. Mountains, plains, deserts. 

4. Rivers, lakes, water-falls, springs. 

5. States, kingdoms, empires. 

6. Cities, towns, villages. 

Make a list of surnames covering those of 
your special acquaintances. 

Recall all the Christian names with which 
you are familiar. 

Look through a daily business newspaper, 
and gather the words which identify particular 
ships or other vessels. 

All these are Individual Names. 

Christian Names. 
It will be a pleasant recreation to trace at this time 
the changes which names have undergone in being used 
by different nations. The modification given to any word 
as spoken by a foreigner would in time account for a dif- 
ference so great that the different forms of a word would 
hardly be recognized to have had the same original. 
Little children mispronounce, and so make new forms 
which are accepted first as nicknames, then made general 
by being adopted. 



BE VIEW. 127 

The common name John was Johan, and Johannes in 
German till shortened into Hans, which the Swiss made 
into Hansle. The corresponding Greek word is Jannes ; 
the Danish, Jens or Janni ; the Welsh, Jan ; the Italian, 
Giovanni. 

All these remained male names. The feminine forms 
that correspond are: Jane, Joan, Johanna, Jenny, Jan ft, 
Jean, Jeanne, Jeannette, Juana, Juanita (pronounced 
Hwana and Hwanita). 

Charles may he traced in the following: Karl, Chariot, 
Carlos, Carol us, Carlo, Caroline, Charlotte, Lotti and 
Lotca, Carlotta. 

Other examples of variation : Katherine, Kate, Katrina, 
Kathchen, Kathleen, Karen, Kolina, Gaton. 

Francis, Franz, Francois, Francisco, Franco, Frances, 
Fanny, Fanchon, Fanchette, Cecca. 

Robert, Robin, Robinet, Rupert, Ruberto, Ruprecht, 
Rab. 

It will be seen that the most of the changes 
must have been made unconsciously by foreign- 
ers, who adopted a name that they could not pro- 
nounce without giving the accent of their own 
language. If this is shown so plainly in personal 
names, it may be inferred in all borrowed words, 
and thus the existence of different languages ac- 
counted for in part. 

It must be borne in mind that most of these 
changes were made before spelling became fixed, 
and that fewer are likely to occur again. 

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC TERMS. 

Draw a circle to represent what is included 
in the term food. Divide it by lines drawn to 



128 STUDIES IN LANG UA GE. 

the center, so as to illustrate smaller classes nam- 
ing Jcinds of food. Write over against each kind 
a phrase or sentence which shall limit the word 
food to the kind described, thus : 

Grain. — A starchy, nutritious food of many 
varieties, used everywhere as a staple article of 
diet. Purstie the same course with a number of 
examples. 

QUALITIES. 

What list of qualities can you gather for de- 
scribing a day, a horse, a fabric, glue, benzine, 
water, sugar, lead, silver. Make a list of mental 
and one of moral qualities. 

Join the words to the thing or person they 
describe, either by placing them before the word 
or after it with a connecting particle, or after 
" is " in some of its forms. 

Example 1. A thick glue ; pure silver ; an in- 
telligent lady ; an honest man. 

2. A horse of great value ; water from the 
well ; a child of great promise ; a boy with per- 
fect health ; a man of high principles. 

3. The horse is vicious ; this sugar is coarse ; 
Mary is very bright, but Susie is good ; the boy 
was efficient and truthful. 

Go on with the other topics in similar way. 

DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION. 

[Letters and Lessons, page 12.] 

Find examples of narration, comparison, 
picture-phrasing, contrast, and enumeration in 



HE VIE W. —LITER A TUBE. 129 

" The Yale of Keswick," as described by Dr. 
Brown. 

Of what is " Morning in Scotland," on page 
20, an example ? 

Of which figure of comparison is " The Wind 
and Stream " a specimen ? Of which is " Belling 
the Cat"? 

Study in connection with this letter " Spring," 
page 16; "June," page 17; "The Cotter's Satur- 
day Night," page 26 ; "A Golden Deed," page 
23 ; and " The Sleep of Endymion," page 24. 

The Cotter's Saturday Night. Nature, History, and 
Mythology. 

The study of the selections embraced in this 
division of Book IV has been anticipated in the 
conversational studies upon the letters. 

If pupils have received and profited by les- 
sons upon the earlier books, this, of a similar 
nature, will present no new difficulties. The 
plan recommended is as nearly that which a lover 
of literature would pursue with a young com- 
panion as can be made consistent with school 
numbers and relations. 

All questions, explanations, analyses, and 
studies have the one aim of making the meaning 
of the text clear and full. As has been said, no 
single selection should be worn out by an ex- 
haustive treatment. It will be found that some 
lines or paragraphs suggest the interpretation 



130 STUDIES IN LANGUAGE. 

by paraphrase, others the change of single words 
or phrases ; many cases will occur, especially 
in poetry, for transposition ; and words used in 
peculiar or special ways, allusions, references, 
figures, etc., will challenge a study of their 
range and force. When all these points have 
cleared the obscurity of the parts, the meaning 
and motive of the whole may be questioned 
upon, and the thoughts suggested by it discussed. 
Each and all these topics will be adapted by the 
teacher to the grade and capacity of pupils ; the 
relation between the work of teacher and pupils 
will also vary with the varying circumstances. 
In this more than any other department of 
school-work there is place for pupils to be recipi- 
ents of a teacher's work and wealth, .passively 
yielding to the impression stamped by a superior 
mind. 

A Golden Deed. 
[Letters and Lessons, page 23.] 

This study is to be taken not only as a deed 
that is golden, but one that is told in golden 
words. The style of the prose narration has all 
the qualities that belong to good writing, a plain, 
straightforward, direct account, in orderly meth- 
od and good language ; and the poetical selection 
is a vivid picture. 

One of the difficulties felt by young writers 
is the division of their work into paragraphs. 



LITERATURE. 131 

The school readers are not always safe guides, as 
breaks are made to accommodate the practice 
of reading in turn. The paragraph should be as 
distinctly marked as a stanza of a poem, and, 
however long, should oe unbroken till its close. 
Having called attention to this fact, question 
upon the paragraphs of this selection, and whether 
each has a distinct idea. 

Study " The Sleep of Endymion " and selec- 
tions from the school readers with this point in 
mind. 

Notice the shortness of the sentences in the 
poem by Montgomery, when the style becomes 
intense as in the lines beginning u It must not 
be. She will not fly. She can not yield. She 
must not fall," 

" The Sleep of Endymion " is a model of 
beautiful English diction. 

The prose version of " The Cotter's Saturday 
Night " may be taken as a study in Equivalent 
Expression, or the story may be told with no 
reference to the poetry. If the former method 
is pursued, care must be taken to avoid a stilted 
style ; if the latter, not to miss the fine details 
that the picture needs. 



1 32 STUDIES IN LA NG UA GE. 

Examples for the Training of the Ear for Rhythm. 

Changing, fading, falling, flying 

From 7 the homes' that gave' them birth, 

Au'tumn leave's, in beau'ty dy'ing, 
Se'ek the mo'ther breast of earth. 

I know the song that the bluebird is singing 
Out in the apple-tree where he is swinging. 

" A milk-maid who poised a full pail on her head 
Thus mused on her prospects in life, it is said." 

" The dew was falling fast, the stars began to 
blink, 
I heard a voice ; it said, c Drink, pretty creature, 
drink/ " 

" From the streams and the founts I have loosed 
the chain." 

I am mo'narch of alT I sur'vey, 

My righ't there is no'ne to dispu'te ; 

From the cen'ter all rou'nd to the sea' 
I am lord' of the fowl' and the bru'te. 

Invention. Notes of a Journey. 

The cover pages furnish all that can be given 
to schools at large, except what may be drawn 



INVENTION. 133 

from school geographies, gazetteers, or other ac- 
cessible books. 

The teacher will see that she may make much 
or little of the matter, according to the time at 
her disposal. For language purposes, it will be 
sufficient to write letters according to prevailing 
styles and forms of arrangement. In a boys' 
school the letters may be written in the style and 
name of the supposed Eugene Wilson, and may 
be addressed to any member of the English 
family. The English connection was introduced 
to make natural occasion for telling things thai 
intelligent Americans might be supposed to know 
already of their own country. 



THE EKD 



APPLETONS' 

Standard American Geographies. 

Based on the Principles of the Science of Educaton, and 
giving Special Prominence to the Industrial, 
« Commercial, and Practical Features. 

A Comprehensive Course, in Two Books, for Graded Schools. 

The remarkable success which Appletons' Readers have attained, 
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We now offer a new series of Geographies, in two books, which 
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Readers are in advance of the old text-books in Reading. 



Brtef Mention of Noticeable Features. 

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No formal definitions ; new and necessary ideas are imparted in 
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Illustrations are furnished on which to base questions leading up 
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The system of reviews, the written exercises, the paragraphs in 
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worthy of special attention. 

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Pronunciation of difficult proper names is given where they occur, 
as well as in the Keference-Tables. 

The Study Maps challenge comparison in point, of correctness, 
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The Illustrations are fresh, graphic, and instructive works of art. 

The results of recent discoverv. including the last census, have 
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PIECES TO SPEAK 



HOW TO SPEAK THEM. 

A Series of Choice Selections for Elocutionary Exercises, with 
Hints for Delivery. 

Edited by HARLAN H. BALLARD, 

Principal of Lenox Academy, Lenox, Mass. ; author of " Words, and 
How to Put Theui Together 1 ' ; " The Word-Writer," etc. 



These selections are published in sets of twenty cards each, one 
exercise to a card, with accompanying directions, and adapted to dif- 
ferent ages aud grades of pupils. 

This series is made upon homoeopathic principles. The number of 
"Speakers" now published is enormous. There are often from one 
hundred to two hundred selections in one book. Yet the pupils usu- 
ally find only about half a dozen available pieces in any of them. It is 
believed that every selection in this series will be used. 

The advantages of this method of publication over the book form 
are apparent : 

1. There is no padding. 

2. The teacher can help a scholar to a " piece to speak" without a 
toilsome search through dreary volumes ; without the necessity of cut- 
ting long pieces down, or the risk of loaning valued books to careless 
fingers. 

3. A great variety of appropriate pieces may be had at trifling cost. 

4. In the case of dialogues, the cards, or leaflets, may be duplicated. 
«o that each speaker can have the whole text witbout the expense of 
buying a book, or the labor of copying. 

The following are now published : 

PART I.— For children over twelve. 

PART II.— For children under twelve. 

PART III.— Dialogues for two boys between twelve and 
sixteen. 

PART IV.— Dialogues for two girls between twelve and 
sixteen. 

PART V.— Humorous. 

Others to follow at intervals. 

Price, per part, post-paid, 20 cents. Discounts made on supplies 
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